時(shí)間:2023-02-27 11:19:27
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[關(guān)鍵詞] 大眾文化;動(dòng)畫(huà)電影;美學(xué);藝術(shù)
美國(guó)哲學(xué)家?jiàn)W爾特加是最早提出大眾文化這一概念的,他編寫(xiě)的《民眾的反抗》書(shū)中提到:大眾文化主要指的是一地區(qū)、一社團(tuán)、一個(gè)國(guó)家中新近涌現(xiàn)的,被大眾所信奉、接受的文化。羅森貝格認(rèn)為大眾文化的不足之處是單調(diào)、平淡、庸俗以及容易在富裕生活中產(chǎn)生的誘惑和孤獨(dú)感。它的消費(fèi)對(duì)象和主體主要是以都市大眾為主,按照市場(chǎng)規(guī)律批量生產(chǎn)的,再通過(guò)現(xiàn)代高科技的發(fā)展進(jìn)行傳播,它為大眾提供感性?shī)蕵?lè),這在一定程度上降低了人類(lèi)文化與藝術(shù)發(fā)展的標(biāo)準(zhǔn),在歷史長(zhǎng)河中起著加深人類(lèi)異化的作用。 中國(guó)改革開(kāi)放初期是大眾文化的醞釀時(shí)期,經(jīng)過(guò)不斷發(fā)展,漸漸地與中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)的精英文化和主流文化成三足鼎立之勢(shì),中國(guó)動(dòng)畫(huà)在這個(gè)時(shí)候開(kāi)始逐漸受到它的影響。直到近幾年,“超女”“快男”等草根文化的興起標(biāo)志著大眾文化開(kāi)始大規(guī)模爆發(fā),讓另外兩種文化望其項(xiàng)背,大眾文化發(fā)展成為文化中的領(lǐng)軍,并對(duì)中國(guó)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影的發(fā)展起著舉足輕重的作用。
動(dòng)畫(huà)電影集合了文學(xué)、戲劇、音樂(lè)、美術(shù)等多種藝術(shù)門(mén)類(lèi),同時(shí)也是對(duì)現(xiàn)代科技的藝術(shù)化表現(xiàn)和對(duì)生活的藝術(shù)化再現(xiàn),它作為一種集合了多種藝術(shù)門(mén)類(lèi)的復(fù)雜藝術(shù)形式,最直接目的是為了傳播,然而要傳播就要迎合大眾的需求。我國(guó)的第一部動(dòng)畫(huà)片《大鬧畫(huà)室》的問(wèn)世至今已經(jīng)有80多年的時(shí)間。如今,動(dòng)畫(huà)電影藝術(shù)隨著高科技技術(shù)的高度發(fā)展獲得了空前的傳播能力。動(dòng)畫(huà)電影作為傳播的媒介之一,將西方文化傳入中國(guó),由此導(dǎo)致的工業(yè)化帶來(lái)的大眾文化正挑戰(zhàn)著中國(guó)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影的創(chuàng)作風(fēng)格和其中所包含的中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)精英文化。動(dòng)畫(huà)電影的發(fā)展受人類(lèi)的文化的影響,同時(shí)又體現(xiàn)和傳承了人類(lèi)的文化趨勢(shì)與大眾的審美思維。在當(dāng)前的大眾文化背景下,大眾審美趨向或者大眾價(jià)值觀(guān)對(duì)傳統(tǒng)審美思維和精英思想產(chǎn)生了空前的震動(dòng),這也導(dǎo)致了動(dòng)畫(huà)電影作為集傳統(tǒng)與現(xiàn)代藝術(shù)于一體的藝術(shù)形式在本質(zhì)上更容易被最廣大人民群眾所接受,動(dòng)畫(huà)電影的價(jià)值目標(biāo)中所包含的人文文化形態(tài)受到大眾的關(guān)注。
目前國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影在形式上詮釋著中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)美學(xué)的同時(shí),漸漸開(kāi)始在內(nèi)容中關(guān)注人文本質(zhì)和人文精神、蘊(yùn)涵著一種人文目標(biāo)和昭示著人文價(jià)值理性。然而傳統(tǒng)文化帶來(lái)的美學(xué)價(jià)值觀(guān)開(kāi)始與大眾文化在沖突中相互融合,大眾文化語(yǔ)境下,中國(guó)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影的美學(xué)特質(zhì)有了新的呈現(xiàn)。
一、動(dòng)畫(huà)形式美的個(gè)性化缺失
符號(hào)化的藝術(shù)創(chuàng)作實(shí)際上是對(duì)美術(shù)風(fēng)格加以修改、簡(jiǎn)化與提煉的過(guò)程,這也是動(dòng)畫(huà)造型的由來(lái),同時(shí)也是為了更好地表現(xiàn)運(yùn)動(dòng)的影像,以滿(mǎn)足敘事的需要。不管是中國(guó)早期的動(dòng)畫(huà)造型形式美還是日式和美式的造型形式美都在極力地弘揚(yáng)個(gè)性,比如我國(guó)早期水墨剪紙動(dòng)畫(huà)中的“拉毛工藝”就是利用特殊紙張撕開(kāi)后參差不齊的邊緣來(lái)獲得一種與水墨風(fēng)格極其類(lèi)似的效果。
如今,商業(yè)化、市場(chǎng)化、工業(yè)化帶來(lái)的大眾文化正深刻影響著中國(guó)的動(dòng)畫(huà)電影,《大鬧天宮》《小蝌蚪找媽媽》等中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)的動(dòng)畫(huà)表現(xiàn)語(yǔ)言已經(jīng)不能滿(mǎn)足當(dāng)代大眾的審美娛樂(lè)化的需要,現(xiàn)代的動(dòng)畫(huà)受眾深受日美動(dòng)畫(huà)美學(xué)的影響,這也迫使國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影已經(jīng)開(kāi)始重新審視自己。商業(yè)在改變中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)動(dòng)畫(huà)表現(xiàn)語(yǔ)言的同時(shí),也在推動(dòng)國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影的發(fā)展,傳播中國(guó)的傳統(tǒng)文化,但是要傳播就要迎合大眾的審美價(jià)值觀(guān),以牟取用來(lái)擴(kuò)大傳播范圍的商業(yè)利益,中國(guó)特有的動(dòng)畫(huà)藝術(shù)審美觀(guān)念正發(fā)生著從崇高向主流的轉(zhuǎn)變,這種轉(zhuǎn)變意味著大眾文化的勝利,它最典型的表現(xiàn)就是國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影中角色和場(chǎng)景的造型形式大量借鑒日、美動(dòng)畫(huà)美學(xué)形式。
商業(yè)利益導(dǎo)致以復(fù)制為主要特點(diǎn)的工業(yè)化成為國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影的趨勢(shì),它與精細(xì)、不可復(fù)制之間存在著極大的沖突性,在這個(gè)趨勢(shì)發(fā)展的過(guò)程中,美學(xué)形式的復(fù)制、高度提煉、簡(jiǎn)化和成本的降低是必不可少的。從中國(guó)早期藝術(shù)家創(chuàng)作的《大鬧天空》《哪吒鬧?!分辛鲿硟?yōu)美而勁氣不泄的中國(guó)國(guó)畫(huà)式線(xiàn)條美到仿日式動(dòng)畫(huà)形式美學(xué)的《夢(mèng)回金沙城》《魁拔》《藏獒多吉》等用平涂的單塊來(lái)表現(xiàn)明暗關(guān)系的歸納形式美感,這是一種造型形式向另一種造型形式的轉(zhuǎn)變,同時(shí)也是非主流形式美向主流形式美的轉(zhuǎn)變,即中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)美學(xué)向大眾美學(xué)的轉(zhuǎn)變,說(shuō)明大眾文化憑借自己得天獨(dú)厚的受眾廣而多的優(yōu)勢(shì)和媒體的傳播力量占據(jù)了藝術(shù)美學(xué)的中心。這種現(xiàn)象不能簡(jiǎn)單理解為傳統(tǒng)動(dòng)畫(huà)美學(xué)形式的完全喪失,或者說(shuō)是中國(guó)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影個(gè)性的完全喪失,而是傳統(tǒng)動(dòng)畫(huà)藝術(shù)形式與大眾文化帶來(lái)的美學(xué)形式之間的相互融合和繼續(xù)發(fā)展,這也是探尋新時(shí)代中國(guó)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影審美形式的必經(jīng)之路。
二、視覺(jué)愉悅的大眾化
動(dòng)畫(huà)電影是一種具有高度想象力的集合體,它的本體是假定的視像,觀(guān)眾需要通過(guò)屏幕完成對(duì)觀(guān)賞視像內(nèi)容的理解,視像內(nèi)容則通過(guò)導(dǎo)演設(shè)計(jì)、文學(xué)創(chuàng)作、原畫(huà)設(shè)計(jì)、動(dòng)作調(diào)整和后期制作完成。因此動(dòng)畫(huà)電影藝術(shù)具有不真實(shí)性的一面。在不真實(shí)的假定視像敘述中,我們看到的是藝術(shù)創(chuàng)作者對(duì)于某種帶有鮮明形式感的藝術(shù)表現(xiàn)方式進(jìn)行動(dòng)態(tài)編輯與組合而形成的影像畫(huà)面。在此過(guò)程中首先就利用了藝術(shù)表現(xiàn)力對(duì)情緒進(jìn)行控制,在此基礎(chǔ)上再利用具有藝術(shù)感染力的活動(dòng)影像來(lái)打動(dòng)觀(guān)眾。
動(dòng)畫(huà)的創(chuàng)作過(guò)程,其實(shí)就是藝術(shù)家精心設(shè)計(jì)一個(gè)虛擬世界的過(guò)程。在這個(gè)虛擬世界中,動(dòng)畫(huà)電影創(chuàng)作者可以盡情釋放創(chuàng)作的激情和特殊的審美情趣。然而現(xiàn)代受眾的審美要求在不斷被大眾文化帶來(lái)的美學(xué)形式所刷新,藝術(shù)家為了迎合大眾的需求,追逐商業(yè)利益來(lái)完成傳播,導(dǎo)致創(chuàng)作者逐漸忽視了動(dòng)畫(huà)內(nèi)容的重要性,開(kāi)始過(guò)分強(qiáng)調(diào)具有強(qiáng)烈刺激感和沖擊力影像的畫(huà)面形式感,以此來(lái)滿(mǎn)足廣大受眾的視覺(jué)愉悅感??茖W(xué)技術(shù)的不斷發(fā)展帶來(lái)了影視技術(shù)不斷進(jìn)步,這為人們感受直觀(guān)的具有沖擊力和寫(xiě)實(shí)效果的畫(huà)面提供了更為有效的實(shí)現(xiàn)途徑,目前的動(dòng)畫(huà)電影比以前任何時(shí)候更強(qiáng)調(diào)它在形式上的視覺(jué)感受,大眾的這種視覺(jué)愉悅需求直接導(dǎo)致了動(dòng)畫(huà)電影在內(nèi)容中淡化精英藝術(shù)所特有的道德感召、人文關(guān)懷、現(xiàn)實(shí)批判、哲學(xué)理念以及民族特色。在動(dòng)畫(huà)電影《夢(mèng)回金沙城》的制作過(guò)程中,由宮崎駿動(dòng)畫(huà)電影制作的團(tuán)隊(duì)來(lái)參與制作,畫(huà)面直接借鑒了日本動(dòng)畫(huà)導(dǎo)演宮崎駿的創(chuàng)作審美特點(diǎn),其取材則借鑒了中國(guó)西南部的景色,宮崎駿動(dòng)畫(huà)電影畫(huà)面中對(duì)于細(xì)節(jié)刻畫(huà)的細(xì)致入微以及顏色的清新淡雅成為《夢(mèng)回金沙城》畫(huà)面的形式美感。
三、藝術(shù)與商業(yè)結(jié)合的趨勢(shì)
中國(guó)早期的國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)被認(rèn)為是完全的文化藝術(shù)事業(yè),沒(méi)有產(chǎn)業(yè)化經(jīng)濟(jì)的概念,不具備商品的基本特征,這樣的觀(guān)念在很大程度上阻礙了國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)的發(fā)展,國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影在20世紀(jì)90年代才在計(jì)劃體制下開(kāi)始規(guī)?;?,并且漸漸開(kāi)始迎來(lái)春天,開(kāi)始有長(zhǎng)度和產(chǎn)量的要求,如今在看到國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影發(fā)展的同時(shí),也意識(shí)到國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影產(chǎn)業(yè)鏈的缺失,中國(guó)特有的藝術(shù)美學(xué)形式仍舊沒(méi)有找到與商業(yè)和新興美學(xué)觀(guān)念進(jìn)行完美結(jié)合的有效途徑,這也說(shuō)明國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影作為展現(xiàn)中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化媒介的同時(shí)與大眾文化所帶來(lái)的審美趨向及價(jià)值觀(guān)之間存在著激烈的矛盾。美國(guó)好萊塢動(dòng)畫(huà)電影作為成熟的商業(yè)化的體系,每年除了大量的商業(yè)作品之外同樣會(huì)出現(xiàn)少數(shù)經(jīng)典的藝術(shù)作品,其次是以日本吉卜力工作室為典型的動(dòng)畫(huà)電影,還有法國(guó)的動(dòng)畫(huà)電影《瘋狂約會(huì)美麗都》,所以大眾文化所帶來(lái)的商業(yè)化與藝術(shù)的發(fā)展之間并不矛盾。
從20世紀(jì)90年代開(kāi)始,隨著美、日動(dòng)畫(huà)電影對(duì)中國(guó)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影的沖擊,商業(yè)購(gòu)買(mǎi)逐漸開(kāi)始介入國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影這種藝術(shù)門(mén)類(lèi),并對(duì)這門(mén)綜合的藝術(shù)形式起著潛移默化的推動(dòng)作用,但這也導(dǎo)致商業(yè)化在某種程度上淹沒(méi)了中國(guó)特色的傳統(tǒng)精英動(dòng)畫(huà)藝術(shù)形式。在國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影產(chǎn)生消費(fèi)文化理論后的這幾十年中,傳統(tǒng)的精英文化也開(kāi)始吸收大眾文化的活力,這是一種藝術(shù)在表現(xiàn)形式上的變化和發(fā)展,比如動(dòng)畫(huà)電影《藏獒多吉》《夢(mèng)回金沙城》,它們?cè)谒囆g(shù)形式上大量吸收了日式動(dòng)畫(huà)的美學(xué)表現(xiàn)方式,日本動(dòng)畫(huà)制作團(tuán)隊(duì)或者參與制作日本動(dòng)畫(huà)的團(tuán)隊(duì)分別參與了這兩部國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影的制作,但它們均以中國(guó)西部的人文自然環(huán)境為背景,兩者的結(jié)合逐漸走向完美,以此來(lái)適應(yīng)大眾文化背景下的審美價(jià)值觀(guān),這也是國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影美學(xué)風(fēng)格的全球化和民族化相結(jié)合的成果。
國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影的商業(yè)化不等于完全排斥中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)精英式的動(dòng)畫(huà)藝術(shù)形式,現(xiàn)代大眾文化對(duì)于國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影的影響也注定高雅,審美文化在當(dāng)下美學(xué)格局中有著不可或缺的位置。當(dāng)前,中國(guó)政府對(duì)國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影的改革力度正在逐漸加大,動(dòng)畫(huà)市場(chǎng)化和商業(yè)化運(yùn)作觀(guān)念的確立以及對(duì)其運(yùn)作模式的探索,都說(shuō)明商業(yè)化和產(chǎn)業(yè)化必然要求中國(guó)要?jiǎng)?chuàng)造屬于自己的主流商業(yè)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影。然而,這樣的轉(zhuǎn)變并不意味著中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)的藝術(shù)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影就無(wú)足輕重,實(shí)際上,把中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)藝術(shù)形式納入動(dòng)畫(huà)電影的商業(yè)化運(yùn)營(yíng)模式之中,在保護(hù)、支持、傳承中國(guó)獨(dú)特的傳統(tǒng)藝術(shù)的同時(shí)推進(jìn)產(chǎn)業(yè)化進(jìn)程,才是中國(guó)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影的繁榮之路。
四、結(jié) 語(yǔ)
國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影不論是作為人性?xún)?nèi)在、永不磨滅的高雅藝術(shù)而存在,還是作為崇尚世俗的大眾文化產(chǎn)物,都不應(yīng)拘泥于某種單一的藝術(shù)形式。當(dāng)前,中國(guó)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影盲目追求商業(yè)化并不利于長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)的發(fā)展,這一現(xiàn)狀和大眾文化的泛濫有著必然的關(guān)系,雖然大眾文化帶來(lái)的審美觀(guān)念對(duì)中國(guó)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影展現(xiàn)的傳統(tǒng)精英藝術(shù)有著強(qiáng)烈的沖擊力,但它終究是當(dāng)代社會(huì)自然發(fā)展的產(chǎn)物,同樣需要遵循產(chǎn)業(yè)化發(fā)展的一般規(guī)律,中國(guó)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影在這樣的大背景中已經(jīng)有了成功的案例。中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)的精英藝術(shù)要與大眾文化進(jìn)行相輔相成的發(fā)展,來(lái)滿(mǎn)足不同生活階層的審美趨向和價(jià)值觀(guān),要在變化的時(shí)代中反映不變的藝術(shù)真理和人文關(guān)懷,以體現(xiàn)人性之真、自然之美,并以引領(lǐng)人們追求真善美為其本職,始終保持大膽創(chuàng)新的創(chuàng)作思路,這些仍舊是中國(guó)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影所要追求和弘揚(yáng)的。
[參考文獻(xiàn)]
[1] 陳汗青,王健.高等院校動(dòng)畫(huà)專(zhuān)業(yè)精品教程[M].長(zhǎng)沙:湖南大學(xué)出版社,2008.
[2] 尹鴻.乍暖還寒的國(guó)產(chǎn)動(dòng)畫(huà)電影[J].大眾電影,2011(17).
[3] 王淑充.影視動(dòng)畫(huà)美學(xué)風(fēng)格研究[EB/OL].http://.cn/Article/CDMD-10445-2008089993.htm,1998-08-16.
[4] 應(yīng)小敏,傅守祥.大眾文化時(shí)代的審美生態(tài)與美學(xué)轉(zhuǎn)向[J].創(chuàng)新,2011(01)
[5] 李朝陽(yáng).從大眾文化的自我解構(gòu)特性看藝術(shù)電影突圍的可能[J].電影文學(xué),2011(04).
【關(guān)鍵詞】 美國(guó)電影;第六日;西方文化;隱喻
【中圖分類(lèi)號(hào)】G644.4 【文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼】A 【文章編號(hào)】2095-3089(2013)33-0-01
一、劇情述評(píng)
美國(guó)電影《第六日》(The 6th Day)是第一部探索人類(lèi)克隆的動(dòng)作影片,它把我們帶到科技已高度的不遠(yuǎn)的未來(lái),在那時(shí),人類(lèi)科技已可以任意克隆任何生物,甚至包括人類(lèi)本身。然而,即便克隆人類(lèi)的技術(shù)已相當(dāng)成熟,但因社會(huì)倫理的限制,仍不被法律所允許。
人類(lèi)的弱點(diǎn)之一就是往往抵擋不了利益的誘惑,在利益面前,不少人會(huì)很容易地就忘記了道德倫理和法律的約束而為所欲為。電影中韋恩實(shí)驗(yàn)室(研究克隆技術(shù)的實(shí)驗(yàn)室)的老板杜拉克便是典型的一例——他在醫(yī)學(xué)博士韋恩的幫助下不僅克隆了自己,也克隆了許許多多的被他認(rèn)為對(duì)自己有利的人,電影的主角亞當(dāng)·吉布森(Adam Gibson,阿諾德·施瓦辛格飾演)即為其中之一。
亞當(dāng)回到家里發(fā)現(xiàn)一個(gè)與自己一模一樣的人取代了自己享受著本屬于自己的天倫之樂(lè),其震驚、困惑、痛苦之情溢于言表。而作為觀(guān)眾,我們都不難想象假如這一切發(fā)生在自己身上,會(huì)是什么一個(gè)感受。于是,為奪回原屬于自己的一切——自己、家庭和愛(ài),亞當(dāng)開(kāi)始了他的“正名”之旅。
如許多美國(guó)電影一樣,《第六日》也有一個(gè)好萊塢式的結(jié)局——亞當(dāng)在其克隆體的幫助之下,成功揭開(kāi)了這一驚天陰謀,并最終拿回了原本屬于自己的一切。
在這部電影中,克隆與愛(ài)兩大主題相互交織:為了愛(ài),亞當(dāng)違背了自己的本意為女兒克隆了他們的寵物狗;出于愛(ài),亞當(dāng)選擇與他的克隆體攜手合作,共同揭開(kāi)了隱藏在克隆人背后的巨大陰謀;因?yàn)閻?ài),克隆亞當(dāng)黯然退出……。若是從圣經(jīng)和基督文化的角度去審視影片的這兩大主題,實(shí)則是矛盾與沖突的相互交織——是上帝創(chuàng)造了世界和人類(lèi),而人類(lèi)無(wú)權(quán)去克隆自己,但人類(lèi)偏偏又克隆了自己;上帝與他所揀選的民立約,要愛(ài)上帝,愛(ài)家人,愛(ài)鄰居,愛(ài)一切基督徒如兄弟姐妹,而片中的主人公所做的一切事情的出發(fā)點(diǎn)正是“愛(ài)”,包括克隆。電影就是在這樣的矛盾沖突中給觀(guān)眾留下了無(wú)盡的回味和思索:人類(lèi)在享受飛速發(fā)展的科技帶來(lái)便利的同時(shí),也不免擔(dān)憂(yōu)——科技高度發(fā)達(dá)之時(shí),人類(lèi)是否還能掌控自己的命運(yùn)?高科技給人們帶來(lái)的是福音還是災(zāi)難?在高科技面前,人類(lèi)應(yīng)該堅(jiān)守的倫理底線(xiàn)是什么?
二、對(duì)克隆的矛盾心態(tài)
1997年2月22日英國(guó)生物遺傳學(xué)家維爾穆特成功克隆出“多莉”羊的新聞被報(bào)道之后,克隆技術(shù)便震驚了世界;2000年6月26日,人類(lèi)基因圖譜被成功破譯,這更為克隆人類(lèi)在理論上提供了可能。但很快,顧及到社會(huì)倫理道德以及多數(shù)人的反對(duì),多數(shù)國(guó)家通過(guò)立法明令禁止克隆人類(lèi)。
《第六日》帶給我們的不僅僅是視覺(jué)的沖擊和震撼,更多的則是引發(fā)了人們對(duì)克隆人的深刻思索。影片最后雖沒(méi)有援引“第六日法案”對(duì)瘋狂的杜拉克進(jìn)行法律審判,但對(duì)他的道德倫理審判卻是顯而易見(jiàn)的。
雖然如此,人們對(duì)克隆卻不免存在有矛盾心態(tài)。正如影片中的亞當(dāng),其本意是,無(wú)論何種生物,“生命的基本法則是,出生,成長(zhǎng),生活,然后死去”。但對(duì)女兒的愛(ài)卻又使他不由自主地走進(jìn)寵物克隆商場(chǎng),克隆了他們家的寵物犬“奧利佛”。這在片中的人們看來(lái),為自己和家人克隆一個(gè)健康的寵物作為替代品已被普遍認(rèn)可,即便他們?nèi)詮?qiáng)烈反對(duì)克隆人。
克隆技術(shù)的出現(xiàn)和發(fā)展,顛覆了人們傳統(tǒng)的對(duì)生命的理解和思考:一則人們渴望借助克隆技術(shù)延續(xù)生命;另一方面,傳統(tǒng)的社會(huì)倫理法則又告訴他們不可越過(guò)雷池。正如影片中亞當(dāng)?shù)乃妓骱鸵蓱]:克隆出來(lái)的,沒(méi)有靈魂,危險(xiǎn)嗎?既然安全,為何不允許克隆人類(lèi)?如何合情合理合法地運(yùn)用高科技,尤其是克隆技術(shù)來(lái)造福人類(lèi),矛盾和糾結(jié)仍在繼續(xù)。
三、西方倫理文化隱喻與《圣經(jīng)》
文藝作品大都有其神話(huà)的、歷史的或現(xiàn)實(shí)的素材和思想淵源并受其價(jià)值觀(guān)念的影響,特別是神話(huà)傳說(shuō),“一直在塑造和影響那些民族的思維觀(guān)念,對(duì)各民族的思想觀(guān)念和文化發(fā)展產(chǎn)生了極其深刻的影響” [1]。而在西方世界,“《圣經(jīng)》的故事和傳說(shuō)是西方文化藝術(shù)的重要源泉……它的思想和哲理已經(jīng)成為人們意識(shí)的重要組成部分”[2]。究其原因,在于《圣經(jīng)》典故在西方社會(huì)中影響的普遍性和深入性:《圣經(jīng)》典故在西方政治、經(jīng)濟(jì)、文學(xué)、藝術(shù)領(lǐng)域普遍存在,且已深深融入哲學(xué)、宗教、和意識(shí)形態(tài)領(lǐng)域,成為西方人的道德和行為規(guī)范,其影響力之廣、之深是任何其他典故所無(wú)法匹敵的。
正如深受儒家思想影響的中國(guó)人的倫理道德觀(guān)念基本來(lái)自于儒家學(xué)說(shuō)一樣,《圣經(jīng)》及其典故所蘊(yùn)含價(jià)值觀(guān)念成為以基督教為普遍的西方人所認(rèn)可和信奉的社會(huì)倫理價(jià)值觀(guān)也就可以理解了。那么,西方電影取材于《圣經(jīng)》典故并將其倫理思想作為影片的主題來(lái)表現(xiàn)并不出人意料。甚至可以不夸張地說(shuō),整整一部西方電影史從未脫離基督教文化的深刻影響[3]。
電影《第六日》也毫不例外地帶有濃厚的《圣經(jīng)》文化色彩,我們從該片片名以及男主角的姓名這些細(xì)節(jié)就可見(jiàn)一斑,因?yàn)椤耙徊侩娪凹捌淦偸墙?rùn)在該民族的文學(xué)、歷史、哲學(xué)、宗教、傳統(tǒng)、習(xí)俗、傳說(shuō)等形成的文化體系中” [4]。
《圣經(jīng)》這樣描述:“神就照著自己的形像造人,乃是照著他的形像造男造女……是第六日”(《舊約·創(chuàng)世紀(jì)》,1:27-31)[5],而片中被多次重復(fù)的一句臺(tái)詞正是“在第六天,上帝創(chuàng)造了人,上帝造人時(shí)在第六天”,凸顯了片名《第六日》的宗教文化含義;《圣經(jīng)》中還講道:“耶和華神用地上的塵土造人,將生氣吹在他的鼻孔里,他就成了有靈氣的活人,名叫亞當(dāng)”(《舊約·創(chuàng)世紀(jì)》,2:7)[6],片中主人公也恰恰以上帝所創(chuàng)造的第一個(gè)人的名字“亞當(dāng)”命名;還有,主角亞當(dāng)·吉布森(Adam Gibson)的姓“吉布森(Gibson)”在古德語(yǔ)中的含義又是“光明磊落的誓約”,此名表達(dá)父母希望子女繼承其祖先財(cái)物及傳統(tǒng)的愿望。
這些細(xì)節(jié)除了在藝術(shù)手法上起到呼應(yīng)主題的作用之外,更深層的含義則是表現(xiàn)該片主創(chuàng)者文藝創(chuàng)作的價(jià)值取向,即《圣經(jīng)》和基督文化所秉承的傳統(tǒng)的基督教倫理,即著眼于在肉體層面或物質(zhì)范疇解讀人(尤其是基督徒)與他人、社會(huì)及萬(wàn)物的關(guān)系嬗變,目標(biāo)指向以神人和諧為基礎(chǔ),重建被罪扭曲的人與他人、人與社會(huì)乃至整個(gè)自然界的關(guān)系[7],重新回歸到“神”所安排的正常的社會(huì)和人類(lèi)生活秩序。
可見(jiàn),影片中所反映的克隆人爭(zhēng)議以及人們的矛盾心理,究其根源,正是來(lái)源于《圣經(jīng)》深刻影響下的民族文化傳統(tǒng),也反映了影片主創(chuàng)者對(duì)克隆人問(wèn)題鮮明的“上帝取向”的生命價(jià)值觀(guān)和態(tài)度,即任何生命的誕生,尤其是人,只有通過(guò)正常途徑出生、成長(zhǎng)的人,才是《圣經(jīng)》中所講的“神所應(yīng)許的”,才是“神”所喜悅的,才是合情合理合法的,否則就是對(duì)上帝的不敬——因?yàn)槿瞬豢赡芟裆系勰菢觿?chuàng)造人類(lèi)和世界;當(dāng)然就是也是反傳統(tǒng)的和倫理的,自然不會(huì)成為多數(shù)人的共識(shí)而被普遍接受。
四、結(jié)語(yǔ)
任何文藝作品都會(huì)反映作者本民族特有的文化傳統(tǒng)及其附帶的價(jià)值觀(guān)念。歐美大片對(duì)所有學(xué)英語(yǔ)、用英語(yǔ)的人來(lái)說(shuō)不啻于一個(gè)學(xué)習(xí)和了解西方文化的生動(dòng)而鮮活的教材,也為我們提供了一個(gè)加深中西文化間相互了解、增加彼此間信任的絕好窗口。另外,一部好的電影帶給人們的應(yīng)該不僅僅是精神上的享受以及文化學(xué)習(xí)和交流的素材,電影故事背后的故事及其帶來(lái)的對(duì)生命和人性的理性思考也非常值得我們?nèi)リP(guān)注。
參考文獻(xiàn)
[1]董廣坤,王傳順.《2012年》中的神話(huà)原型與末日隱喻[J].電影文學(xué),2011:20.115-116.
[2]趙玲潔,趙彥榮.《圣經(jīng)》在西方文化中的表現(xiàn)形式及影響[J].時(shí)代文學(xué),2011:8.88-89.
[3]楊然.電影中的宗教魅力——談基督教文化在電影中的文化價(jià)值[J].電影評(píng)介,2009:19.8-9。
[4]佟磊,沈秋敏.淺談西方文化與西方電影片名翻譯[J].時(shí)代文學(xué),2009:15.149-150.
Key words:Black English; American English; American Culture; Influence
Contents
1. Introduction 1
2. The Characteristics of Black English 2
2.1 Phonetics 2
2.2 Grammar 3
3. The Influence on American Culture 7
3.1 The Influence on American English 7
3.2 The Influence on American Art 9
3.3 The Influence on American Literature 11
4. The Practical Significance of Black English 14
5. Conclusion 15
Acknowledgements 16
References 17
1.Introduction
Black English is a social dialect of American English, and it has been historically influenced by West African languages, General Southern American English and English-based creoles.
This kind of English shares several characteristics with the forms of Creole English spoken by people throughout the whole world. In addition, it also has pronunciation, grammatical structures, and vocabulary in common with various West African languages.[1]198 Since a large number of Black people migrate to America and they have the percentage of more than 12%, [2]496the Black English has been popularized in this country. But in the American society, people seldom realize the influence and contribution of Black English and they never give the equal state to Black people. In fact, the language and culture of American reflect the contributions of the Black English in many aspects, such as linguistic, art and literature.
Nowadays, it is reasonably acceptable to say that Black English is not only an independent language but also making practical significance to American English and the American Culture. Researchers need to study the significance in details. So this paper intends to collect the study of the characteristics of Black English, and then summarize its influences on the American English. Since the change of language can lead changes in other aspects, such as Art and Literature aspects, this paper also states the influence in detailed options.
The method of this paper is reviewing the past study and surveys, not just from the linguistic point of view or the historical aspects of Black English, but from its formation and characteristics to demonstrate the existence and development of Black English and the practical significance. Through the analysis of Black English on the profound impact of American culture, the paper advances a view on the value of Black English and its prospects. Finally it puts forward the importance and necessity of enhancing learning and research on Black Culture as the continuous improvement and economic conditions of Black people.
2. The Characteristics of Black English
Black English, as a unique variant of English, has many differences with the Standard English based on the structure of language. And this paper tends to discuss the features of Black English in phonetics and grammar aspects. Since Black English is not just a simplified version of English, it has a unique language system with the same fixed structure as any other dialect all over the world.
2.1 Phonetics
Most Black people use a distinctive English variant. This black dialect has aroused many linguists’ interests. Repeatedly been labeled as “pidgin English”, Black English’s role in the development of American Culture can not be questioned. Black English as a source of Black Culture has always been paid more attention by linguists and sociologists in nowadays.
2.1.1 The Weakened Consonant
Because of the influence of West African, some voiced consonants are the same with their form of voiceless consonant. Word-final devoicing of /b/, /d/, and /g/ are always pronounced to //, //, //, and in most cases these phonemes are ignored. In order to make a difference between them, sometimes the vowel before the voiced consonants could be slightly re-read harder, take the “heat and heed”, “let and led” and “fate and fade” which is ended with the word “e” as examples.
In the syllables which are combined with consonants and vowels, some nasals can also be weakened, such as “sum, sun, sung”, and only the vowel // in the word which is somewhat influenced by the nasal.
2.1.2 The Omission of Consonant Clusters
The simplification of Consonant Clusters is an obvious feature of Black English. The mutes in English are //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //. Black English often omit the mutes in the end of a word, and the word “side”// is always pronounced to “sigh”//. This kind of omission is not arbitrary, and it is decided by the situation of pronouncing a word: when the mute at the end only represents the morpheme is not connected, for example, the frequency of reserving // is higher than integral part of the stem in the word “borrow”. It will also be reserved if there is vowel behind the mute, such as the first “d” in the phrase “tried hard”.
2.1.3 The Pronunciation of // and //
The omission of // is a notable characteristic of Black English. In American, it is a tendency of underclass to omit // before vowels but not only of Black English.[3]297Because of this kind of omission, there is no differences between “guard-god”, “fort-fought” and “sore-saw” in Black English.When // is between two vowels, the syllable after it needn’t be pronounced, as “Paris” could be read as//; when there is a word beginning with vowel behind it, the // could also be regretted.
// is voiceless before the consonant, such as the word “health” always be pronounced to // and so on. However, when // is after the vowel as the end of the word, it is assimilated by the phoneme before it, such as the similar pronunciation with “mail” and “may”//. In addition, // is voiceless before // and //, as “always”//, “already” //. The more interesting thing is that they pronounce “will” to “ah”,for example, “I ah be there in a minute.” While the correct form in Standard English is “I will be there in a minute.”
2.1.4 The Pronunciation of // and //
In Black English, // is always pronounced as // and // is always pronounced as //, for example, “think” is pronounced to be //. While the // in the end of a word is transformed to //, and “mouth” is pronounced to be //, “nothing” is to //. In addition, the “th” in the middle of a word is always pronounced to be //, so “mother” is to //, “other” is to //, and “brother” is to //.
Actually, there are many more characters than mentioned in the paper, but we can recognize the differences of phonetics between Black English and Standard English just from the mentioned examples.
Smith Thurman, a well-known expert in Black English, said that black dialect used same number of English phonemes with white, and the only difference is the distribution pattern of phoneme.[4]553
2.2 Grammar
There are also many researches who have found the special usage in grammar of Black English. For example, the different meanings in the sentences “He workin’” and “He done worked” are hard to be explained by the Standard English. The first means “He is working 253.It also indicates the difference between Simple progressive and emphasized perfective. Not only the tense plays a different role in the grammar, there are many other points such as the relative usage of the word “be”, the negation and transmission of the word.
2.2.1 Tense
Syntax best embodies the characteristics of Black English. In the verb-system, the differences between Black English and Standard English are most significant, which is most similar with pidgin and Creole their ancestors used. In Black English, the only duty of the verb in the sentence is to indicate the time concept of one or a few verbs, and other verbs can be expressed in verb stem. Sometimes when the context gives essential temporal support, the tense can be totally regretted. For example, in the following section of black sermons, the Preacher has made it clear that he is talking about the past, because both the life and devotion of Jesus have already happened: “The man Jesus,he come your sins! He the thieves and here. He die to walk the earth. He you from go among try to Save the unrighteous. The master say whoever will let him come!”
In addition, the singular verb of third person in Present Tense is not ended with “s”, for example, “She work in the factory”.
Black English has two Perfect Tenses: “Remote Perfect aspect” which is constituted by the “been” and “Immediate Perfect aspect” constituted by “done”. At this point, Black English and West African languages is extremely similar. [6]
(i) The “been” in “remote perfect aspect” has a certain meaning of action in past tense. And this kind of perfect tense could be divided into two forms: I been know him(momentary action), I been knowin’-him.(ongoing action).
(ii) “Immediate Perfect aspect” uses the auxiliary verb “done”. In modern Black English, following sentence are commonly used:
① I done go.
② I done went.
③ I done gone.
These three are used in different situations:
① Used in the Immediate Present sentences.
② Used in the Simple Past sentences.
③ Used in the semi adjective structures.
2.2.2 Relative usage of “be”
The usage of“be”in Black English is also very special. If one action, thing or state does not happen frequently, the“be”in this sentence will be deleted. For example, “he in the house -watchin’ TV”. The abbreviation of the copula such as “is” and “are” can also be deleted. In addition, when in a passive sentence the passive voice is not expressed so clearly by the speaker, “be” can also be deleted, for example, “the factory built in 1958”. However if the action happens frequently, “be” can be used as the predicate verb in the sentence“they be out in the yard every night.”
When“be” and“do” work together means this kind of thing happens frequently in the Interrogative sentences and Emphatic sentences. For example, “Do you be playing all day?” (Do they play all day?) “Yeah, the boys do mess around a lot.”(Yeah, the boys do mess around a lot.) Famous linguist William Labov researched a lot in the Black English and concluded that: all the“be”which can appear in the forming of abbreviation can be deleted in Black English. [7]113Actually, the usage of “be”is far more complex than this conclusion which is easily got from the above descriptions.
2.2.3 Negation
There are three different versions of negation in Black English: “ain’t”, “don’” and “dit’n”, which can be written as “ain’t”, “don’t” and “didn’t”. While the special usage of “ain’t” is a feature of Black English. Ain not is a negative form in past tense: I ain’t see. In a sentence, the negation always repeated: I ain’t see nothin’ like that no place. The meaning is equivalent of: I did not see anything like that anywhere. (I’ve never seen this kind of thing in any place.) When the predicate is not active verb, ain’t become the only symbol of negation. For example, I ain’t afraid of nothing. He ain’t gonna get no money out of it. Besides, it can be combined with "ing" and make up the present continuous tense. For example, we ain’t kidding and we ain’t quitting, we ain’t turning back.
The function of “ain’t” in Black English is same with the “haven’t” in Standard English. Therefore the “We haven’t contacted each of her since last Christmas.” can be evolved to “We ain’t contacted each of her since last Christmas.” Sometimes, “ain’t” can replace the phrase “didn’t” in simple negation sentence. So in Black English, sentences can be like following forms: “She ain’t email me yesterday.” The young boy insisted, “I ain’t steal his wallet.” “I ain’t run like that in years.”
Multi-negation means there is not only one symbol of negation. Under this regulation, the pronoun needs to add some mark of negation.
For example: “She ain’t see any thing/ anyone at the railway station” can be changed into “She ain’t see nothing/ nobody at the railway station”. If the subject is “nobody” but not “he” or “Janet”, it will add negative determiner at the beginning of the sentence. This is called “negative inversion” by linguists. As a result, it is very common to hear that “Didn’t nobody say nothing to the peoples!”
3. The Influence on American Culture
An important contribution of Black English is the influence on the American Culture. The familiar “negro spiritual”, the unusual rhythms and the famous performance in movie and literature —all these originated with the slaves. It is said that what is the best and most original in American popular culture has its roots in Black English. Important black speakers, singers, actors and writers are too numerous to list.
3.1 The Influence on American English
He Ruigao expresses his opinion in his article Black English that there are some differences in certain aspects of language between Black English and American English. And he believes that after all, Black English is a variant of English, so the differences are only in some degree rather than fundamental, and do not affect the people’s contacts.
It is clear that there is a strong relationship between Black English and American English, while the distinct characters of Black English are not fully explained and its origins are still a matter of debate. One theory is that Black English arose from one or more slave creoles that arose from the trans-Atlantic African slave trade and the need for African captives to communicate among themselves and with their captors. According to this theory, these captives’ language developed into what are called pidgins, simplified mixture of two or more languages. As pidgins are from closely contact between members of different language communities, the slave trade would have been exactly such a situation. Not until the time of the American Civil War did the language of the slaves become familiar to a large number of educated whites. As the time passes, the Black English gradually plays an important role in the United States and U.S. Culture.
3.1.1 The Forming of Black English
In the slave society, there are so many different languages that the natives on two sides of the river cannot understand each other. But the safest way for them to keep their authority is to trade with the different nations on both sides of the river. The famous writer, Cotton Mather, claimed to have been very familiar with his slaves’ speech, and his imitative writing shows features presented in many Creole languages and even in modern Black English. By the time of the American Revolution, varieties among slave creoles were not quite mutually intelligible.
Not until the time of the American Civil War did the language of the slaves become familiar to a large number of educated whites. In Army Life in a Black Regiment (1870), Thomas Wentworth Higginson detailed many features of his soldiers' language. Shana Poplack has also provided corpus-based evidence from isolated enclaves in Samaná and Nova Scotia lived by descendants of migrations of early Black English-speaking groups. All of these researches suggest that the grammar of early Black English is closer to that of contemporary British dialects than modern urban Black English to current American dialects. We can find that the modern language is a result of divergence from mainstream varieties, rather than the result of creolization from a widespread American creole.
3.1.2 The Relations with the American English
In United States, blacks worked in this land with the identity of slaves and inherited some habits from the African culture and language, and thus gradually formed a black American society with unique culture. While the communication between the black slaves and the slavers became a major hub linking the two cultures, and produced a subtle influence to American English, which mainly reflected in English words borrowed, as well as the meaning of the word twists and turns, and the absorption of idioms. Its pronunciation is, in some respects, common to Southern American English, which is spoken by many African Americans and many non-African Americans in the United States.
There is little regional variation among speakers of Black English.89 In order to understand the United States and American culture, and to acquire its development, Blacks melt their culture, such as language, literature and art, with those of the United States. Later, Black English is not only for Black people, it is still widely used by a number of regional dialects. Even in literature works, authors often use Black English to show the hero's nationality, identity and upbringing.
Not only the phonetics and grammar of Black English prove the influence to American language, but we can also achieve it from the assertion of Black English. For example, “the blacker the berry, the sweeter the juice” means “she is very mature and favorable”. Another example, “you aren’t got a pot to piss in on a window to throw I tout of” means that you are very pool. “If I tell you a hen hip snuff, look under its wing and find a whole box” means that all you said is true. “You never miss yo water till yo well run dry” means that “you will never feel the importance of water until you are very thirst”.[10]6-7 The representative assertion is very lively and meaningful, suggesting the wisdom of the Black English.
3.2 The Influence on American Art
When Blacks live in Africa, they have the hobby to sing and dance during laboring. But then they are later taken away as slaves by the colonists to the southern United States plantation. They work in the fields wearing shackles and live in the primitive hut in the deserted swamp and jungle. But due to this kind of suffering, they create a valuable oral literature including hymns and blues and other Black Art, which has made an outstanding contribution to the culture to the United States.
3.2.1 The Integration with Music
It is generally believed that music of blacks has some distinctive forms from American music like American Ragtime, Blues, Jazz, Musical and Country music. Ragtime was first played by a black Anonymous piano, which was very popular in the late 19th century to early 20th century. It uses segmentation rhythm, trying to evolve from the popular dance music of blacks, and then Ragtime music appears. Scott. Joplin is one of the Ragtime representatives, and his performance of “Maple Leaf pull tone” has been a smash hit, which is so famous that all of the Ragtime pianist would play in their shows.
Blues is from field horn and songs with a strong feeling of African tradition and its tunes are always sad. The most famous Blues singer is Bessie Smith, known as Blues Queen. When Ragtime, Blues and other tunes with rich colors of Africa's influence add together with the elements in Europe, the Jazz comes into being.
With the integration of grammar, the ways people sing a song become various in American. Many young people jump into the swim of “rap” and “hip-hop”, which is considered as a really fashion style to express one song and the soul. While among the most famous masters, more than 90 percent are black people, such as the episode in Prison Break.
The word “rap” meant “blame” in the middle of 18th century and was always used in phrase in the 19th, “to take the rap” meant “to take the blame”. After the civil war, black people used it to blame white people and requested the equality with them. And finally it replaced the word “conversation” to be popular among the white teenagers. There are many simplifications of words in “rap” which become totally different with American English. For example, the “er” in the end of word is changed into “a”, “nigger” into “nigga”.[11]185 Besides, the “ks” or “cks” in the end of a word can be replaced by “x” because they have the same pronunciation. All of these examples prove that it has become a new version of grammar in American English. For example, the “re” or “e” which can’t be heard during a speedy song are always omitted such as “more” and “mo”, “for” and “fo”, or the number “4”. The omission of “g” in “ing” is another new grammar in American English.
Some words also change its pronunciation. For example, in the word “through”, “gh” never being pronounced is know to all, since we pronounce “th” // in stead of // there is no difference in pronunciation with the word “true”.
In the “rap”, the Black English has many distinct characters and its lyrics tend to be more fashion and creative. Most of these new word are very short or the abbreviation of some long words so that even the local Americans can not understand. In order to keep its character of fashion, “rap” uses word on the point of fashion. Therefore, the characteristics of Black English are the foundation of “rap”, which makes it no longer a simple style of music but a diverse style.
3.2.2 The Integration with Film
Film is an integrated form of art, with combination of test technology, art and commerce, and the thought of images it brings to the human mind is revolutionary. Because it's easy to be accepted, the film is destined to be a mass media on hundreds of millions people when it appears. In a short century, Hollywood becomes a symbol of American mass culture, and the influence on American society is immeasurable.
Film expresses and promotes the life style and values of Americans. During the war era, it boosts moral e of the soldiers. While in the Depression era, it could replace the cash of the American dream and reflected the public's ideals and dreams. In this case, blacks also express their dream to achieve the equality in the American society through the film, such as Shaw shank Redemption, the Pursuit of Happiness and Death Pact and so on. Because of the success of these works and the influence on future, some later generations continued to collect and summarize the classic dialogue in these black films, and to commemorate the black culture for future generations to study at the same time.
There are two characteristics of grammar which can be easily found in the black films.First is the invariant of “be”, and second is the multi-negation of“ain’t”.The invariant of“be”is used before verb, adjective, noun and passive voice in Black English.
(i)Your gas bill be high, don’t it? (Your gas bill is usually high, isn’t it?)
(ii) My boss be in his office by 8am. (My boss is usually in his office by 8am.)
(iii)It don’t be dogged. I grease it and oil it. (It isn’t usually dogged, I grease it and oil it.)
Laurel Avenue (1993) is a story about a family’s effort to counter drug, faction and violence in order to achieve the “American Dream”. In the film, when Rashhawn’s uncle blamed on his sailing drug, he said that “What the hell I be giving you money fuh[for ]?” while his word can also be translated to “Do you know why I always give you money ? ”
It is worthy to mention that this kind of grammar in the film is also very popularized by young Latinos. Therefore, the Black English users have crossed the racial boundaries and expanded to the crowd who are favor of hip hop culture.
The multi-negation of “ain’t” can be fully realized in the most influential black filmmaker Spike Lee’s masterpiece Do the Right Thing. The story happened in Brooklyn, New York, and demonstrated an explosion caused by the ethnic problems. There are a large number of unique performances of Black English in the dialogues: “Ain’t no brothers on the wall? I ain’t run like that in years. Don’t call me no bum. Jade don’t come here no more, all right? Don’t call me nothing.”
Although many so-called “not standard”regulations of Black English have been criticized for a long time, its expression is an important means to promote Black Culture of the Hollywood directors and become a beautiful view in American films.
3.3 The Influence on American Literature
In the destiny of black, there must be a clearly visible way, on which they have worked with effort to win dignity and literary. Through their effort, it exhibited such a road as well as those marks in relation to life along the way: once in Black history, unforgettable pain is essential for the experience to the results today. Black Literature, in the United States and the world, has been mainly as slaves, especially in countries outside Africa.
The Black English writer Toni Morrison was born in black family, and later achieved today’s scholars and writer’s identity by reading. In 1993, because of her “making the important part of American society much more vigorously through the rich poetic imagination and expression”, she won the Nobel Prize for Literature, and became the only black women writer in history to be honored.
Not only the Black Literature but also the American Literature has these characters of Black English in their works.
The Sound and the Fury (1929) is written by a famous American writer William Faulkner (1897-1962). The first part, “April 7th, 1928”, describes the conversation and action between the children in the farm waiting for the coming of procession.
“I skeered I going to holler,” T.P said.
“Get on the box and see is they started.”
“They haven’t started because the band hasn’t come yet.” Caddy said.
“They ain’t going t have no band.” Frony said.
“How do you know?” Caddy said.
“I know what I knows,” Frony said.
“You don’t know anything,” Caddy said.
“She went to the tree.”
“Put me up,” Versh.
“Your paw told you to stay out that tree,” Versh said.
“That was a long time ago,” Caddy said,
“I except he’s forgotten about it, besides he said to mind me tonight. Didn’t he say to mind me tonight?”
“I’m not going to mind you, T .P and Frony are not going to either,” Jason said.[12]4
The children in this conversation turn out to be totally different between T.P, Frony, Versh and Caddy, Jason. The dialogue of the first three people has some characters of Black English. For example, “be” in the sentence “I (am) skeered (that) I (am ) going to holler” which is the distinct signal of Black English. On the contrary, the conversation of Candy and Jason do not omit this part as Jason says that “I’m not going to mind you,TP and Frony are not going to either”. And the singular verb of third person even does not have any difference with first person or any one else in the sentence “I know what I knows”. In addition, the mixture of // and // of the word “git” in the sentence “got on the box” is very common in Black English. It turns out that T.P, Frony and Versh are children of black in the farm, while Caddy and Jason are children of the farmer.
On the other hand, many black people like Frederick and William, not only struggle to learn the culture, but also use the pen as a weapon after the flight. They took active part in the abolitionist movement and expressed positive public opinions. Slave owner always treat Black people as the inferior race, so Black people’s ability to carry out literature itself is a powerful evidence of that lie, let alone the rich ideological content in their articles. And all of these proof that Black people is an excellent nation with a historical cultural tradition on the literature and their language also plays an irreplaceable role in the development of American literature.
4. The Practical Significance of Black English
In1863, 2 years before the war ended, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves in the Confederate states. Shortly after the war ended in 1865, the thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution freed all slaves. A few years later, the fourteenth and fifteenth Amendments gave the former slaves full civil rights, including giving African-American men the right to vote.[13]77
In politics, more blacks are voting, and more are getting elected. Since 40 years ago, the Black middle-class group has risen from scratch and grown in their standard of living. There are no difference in professional skills and educational background with the white middle class. Outstanding representatives of Black people appear in many areas of the United States, such as the Black mayor, governor, ministers and members of Congress, and all of them are no longer surprise to us. The much more important thing is that Democratic candidate Barack Obama won the U.S. presidential election in 2008 to become the first real chance to win the presidency in the Black.
Blacks are also trying to improve their financial position by going into professions or starting their own business. There are now more than 600,000 black-owned companies in the U.S. and blacks are more numerous than ever in the professions-as teachers, doctors, lawyers, judges and ministers.
In 1952, Ralph Ellison, a black author, wrote a book about blacks in the U.S. called the Invisible Man. Since the 1960s, blacks have become more visible on TV and in movies and magazines. Networks, filmmakers and advertisers now realize that black consumers want to see their race represented. Today, blacks in significant numbers work as newscasters, TV actors and actresses, and movie stars.
Huang Weifeng says in his African American English on a Number of Historical Issues that, “Only when the racism in American society has been completely eradicated from the mind, the Black Cultural expressions of Black English can really be recognized.”81
5. Conclusion
“Black English” is widely used as the name because it is used by Black people. In fact, its user of this language is far beyond our imagination. In addition to the external community in the black population, it is also used by lower middle and low classes in America. It has profound impacts on American culture and communication in various aspects, especially with the continuous improvement of their political, economic and cultural status, and Black English has been paid more and more attention. In view of this, the paper starts to explore the formation and characteristics of its existence and development. It is said that the view of helping people understand the Black Culture correctly, the concept of eliminating the racial discrimination and enhancing the awareness to protect national culture plays an important role to cultural exchanges and cultural diversity.
The above discussion of Black English is by no means comprehensive but it can serve our purpose to improve the regulation and state of Black English. The significance of studying the nature of Black English is really multifaceted. While the most direct one is the significance for lingu istic research. The attitude to the question that whether Black English is a dialect or a language determines the methods of research. This paper argues that Black English is essentially a separate system and its significance to the American Culture. It should be researched as an independent study of language. [17]34
Undoubtedly, the Black English makes Black people more dramatic in the movies. The syntax rules and special vocabulary of Black English, which are incompatible with the mainstream of English, become the foundation of their culture with their bold dance and passive music. Although most black people using Black English live in the southern United States and the countries, those well-educated middle-class blacks also use Black English in some informal gatherings.
With the black music, novels and movies continuously mix into the mainstream of American society, the syntax rules and special vocabulary of Black English begin to be accepted by American English and become parts of the American culture. Because of the worldwide spread of English and increasingly prosperous Black Culture, the Black English will be more widely active in screen as a mature variation of English and an important way to display the diverse culture of the United States.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my tutor, Wu Qing, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books.
My greatest personal debt is to my grandparents and parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
References
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[14] 黃衛(wèi)峰. 對(duì)現(xiàn)代英語(yǔ)詞匯學(xué)的兩處質(zhì)疑[J]. 云夢(mèng)學(xué)刊, 2003.
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誠(chéng) 信 承 諾
我謹(jǐn)在此承諾:本人所寫(xiě)的畢業(yè)論文《論黑人英語(yǔ)對(duì)美國(guó)文化的影響及其現(xiàn)實(shí)意義》均系本人獨(dú)立完成,沒(méi)有抄襲行為,凡涉及其他作者的觀(guān)點(diǎn)和材料,均作了注釋?zhuān)粲胁粚?shí),后果由本人承擔(dān)。
承諾人(簽名): 徐珊珊
關(guān)鍵詞:權(quán)力距離 不確定性規(guī)避 個(gè)人主義-集體主義 男性度-女性度
一、Hofstede的文化心理模式與寫(xiě)作
荷蘭跨文化合作研究所的霍夫斯特德(Hofstede,1980)做過(guò)一項(xiàng)著名的跨文化比較研究,他曾對(duì)IBM公司在40個(gè)國(guó)家、地區(qū)中的10余萬(wàn)雇員,用20種語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行了一項(xiàng)長(zhǎng)達(dá)7年的研究,發(fā)現(xiàn)這些國(guó)家在文化上的差異主要表現(xiàn)為4個(gè)方面:即“權(quán)力距離”、“不確定性回避”、“個(gè)體取向與集體取向”、“男性化與女性化”。這4個(gè)方面也就是民族文化差異的4個(gè)維度,每一種文化的特點(diǎn)都可以用它在這4個(gè)維度上的強(qiáng)弱來(lái)表示。
1.“權(quán)力距離”(power distance) ,指一種文化對(duì)社會(huì)地位差別和等級(jí)重要性的看重程度。也可視為上級(jí)對(duì)下級(jí),管理者對(duì)被管理者的影響力和控制力的大小。在權(quán)力距離大的文化中,整個(gè)社會(huì)是一個(gè)等級(jí)較鮮明的組織系統(tǒng);而權(quán)力距離較小的文化則會(huì)使人們有較為平等的觀(guān)念。
2.“不確定性規(guī)避”(uncertainty avoidence),指社會(huì)大眾面對(duì)不確定性和模糊情境所產(chǎn)生恐懼感的強(qiáng)弱,及是否采取措施消除這種恐懼感。不確定因素規(guī)避指數(shù)高的文化信賴(lài)權(quán)威,避免分歧和不確定;而不確定因素規(guī)避指數(shù)低的文化樂(lè)于冒險(xiǎn)和接受新奇、陌生的事物。
3.“個(gè)人主義-集體主義”(inpidualism-collectivism),指一種文化依賴(lài)和忠于個(gè)人自我的程度。個(gè)人主義傾向的社會(huì),注重自我需要的滿(mǎn)足,追求多樣化的生活和自我價(jià)值的實(shí)現(xiàn);而集體主義傾向的社會(huì)則重視集體的利益及個(gè)人對(duì)集體的責(zé)任。
4.“男性度-女性度”(masculinity-femininity),指一種文化是看重自信、成就和財(cái)富擁有,還是更看重社會(huì)支持、生活質(zhì)量等其他方面。男性度指數(shù)高的社會(huì)崇尚成就和野心及其他陽(yáng)剛行為;男性度指數(shù)低的文化中,工作和成就則是次要的,提倡的是人與人的相互依賴(lài)與和諧相處,同情弱者,重視人與自然的和諧。
文化屬于社會(huì)結(jié)構(gòu)的概念,是社會(huì)形態(tài)的組成部分,文化模式就是一個(gè)社會(huì)中所有文化內(nèi)容(包括文化特質(zhì)與文化叢)組合在一起的特殊形式和結(jié)構(gòu),因此,文化模式反映的是一個(gè)社會(huì)的結(jié)構(gòu)、形態(tài)、運(yùn)行等總的社會(huì)意識(shí)。語(yǔ)言作為文化的載體,必然負(fù)載著一個(gè)民族的文化心理模式。美國(guó)應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)家羅伯特.凱普蘭(Robert Kaplan,1966)便發(fā)現(xiàn),語(yǔ)言和寫(xiě)作是文化現(xiàn)象,每一種語(yǔ)言都有其獨(dú)一無(wú)二的修辭習(xí)慣,篇章的組織方式反映了人的思維模式。他總結(jié)了五種文化不同的段落組成類(lèi)型,其中英語(yǔ)的段落模式與漢語(yǔ)的段落模式便有很大的不同,英語(yǔ)篇章的組織和發(fā)展是"直線(xiàn)型"(linear),即直截了當(dāng)?shù)仃愂鲋黝},進(jìn)行論述;漢語(yǔ)學(xué)生典型作文方式呈"螺旋型"(circular/spiral),即不直接切入主題,而是在主題外圍"兜圈子"或"旁敲側(cè)擊",最后進(jìn)入主題。卡普蘭有關(guān)思維模式和寫(xiě)作的研究導(dǎo)致了對(duì)比修辭研究的發(fā)展。文化和心理模式的研究成為探討第二外語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作的重要角度。本文便想從霍夫斯特德的四種文化思維模式來(lái)透視中國(guó)學(xué)生英語(yǔ)論文與英語(yǔ)母語(yǔ)論文的差異。
二、中國(guó)人的文化心理模式
1.中國(guó)文化中較大的權(quán)力距離
中國(guó)經(jīng)過(guò)長(zhǎng)期的封建社會(huì)和儒家禮教的熏陶,整個(gè)社會(huì)都籠罩在“三綱五?!钡牡燃?jí)觀(guān)念中。上下級(jí)甚至父子、兄弟之間都有不同的權(quán)力等級(jí)。雖然“君叫臣死,臣不得不死;父叫子亡,子不得不亡”等封建觀(guān)念已然過(guò)時(shí),但“長(zhǎng)兄如父、官大一級(jí)壓死人、師道尊嚴(yán)”這些上下觀(guān)念依然深入人心。較大的權(quán)力距離使得中國(guó)文化中的人們比較尊重上級(jí)、長(zhǎng)者或已有的權(quán)威,習(xí)慣順從和接受。與之相比,英語(yǔ)國(guó)家封建社會(huì)的歷史都較短,文化在很大程度上繼承了古代希臘文明的民主議會(huì)制度,說(shuō)英語(yǔ)人數(shù)最多的美國(guó)和澳洲又都是年輕的大陸,英語(yǔ)文化的權(quán)力距離相對(duì)較小,人們崇尚平等,敢于提出自己的觀(guān)點(diǎn)。
2.中國(guó)文化中較高的不確定性規(guī)避指數(shù)
不確定性和標(biāo)新立異往往與社會(huì)等級(jí)化的程度成反比。在即成的、穩(wěn)定的社會(huì)組織系統(tǒng)中,不確定性自然不受青睞。因此,中國(guó)文化的不確定性規(guī)避指數(shù)也相應(yīng)較高,人們對(duì)尚未被社會(huì)輿論或權(quán)威確定的事物往往采取規(guī)避態(tài)度,不太喜歡競(jìng)爭(zhēng)和沖突,追求有秩序的社會(huì)生活,力求將可能發(fā)生的不確定性降低到最低限度。另外,中國(guó)作為四大文明古國(guó),處肥沃之地,以居住地為根,衍出“家本位”,更導(dǎo)致人們對(duì)不確定和模糊情境的較強(qiáng)恐懼;而多數(shù)英語(yǔ)國(guó)家探險(xiǎn)和遷移的傳統(tǒng)使得英語(yǔ)文化中的人們較喜歡探索未知的領(lǐng)域,敢于冒險(xiǎn)和面對(duì)挑戰(zhàn)。
3.中國(guó)文化強(qiáng)調(diào)集體主義
在英語(yǔ)文化中,個(gè)人主義(inpidualism)包含著自我認(rèn)知、自我實(shí)現(xiàn)、自我控制、自我突破等優(yōu)秀品質(zhì)(Waterman,1984)。但在中國(guó)文化中,個(gè)人主義常有自私、不考慮集體利益、特立獨(dú)行等負(fù)面內(nèi)涵。中國(guó)的文化更重視互相依賴(lài)和共享的集體利益。自我的價(jià)值實(shí)現(xiàn)、成就的追求會(huì)受到有意識(shí)的壓抑和貶低,以求得同集體中其他成員的和諧。
4.中國(guó)文化的女性主義傾向
根據(jù)霍夫斯特德的界定,男性主義的文化崇尚成就和野心;而女性主義文化提倡的,人與人的相互依賴(lài)、重視的是人與自然的和諧相處。雖然中國(guó)有男尊女卑思想,且對(duì)物質(zhì)和金錢(qián)非常崇拜,表面上看是一個(gè)男性度高的社會(huì);但本質(zhì)上,對(duì)追求成功、重視成就、崇尚力量、速度、高大等男子氣概并不認(rèn)同。相反,中國(guó)的儒家精神倡導(dǎo)“修身、齊家、治國(guó)、平天下”,強(qiáng)調(diào)道德規(guī)范自覺(jué)能力,人的價(jià)值通過(guò)“內(nèi)省”、“克己”來(lái)表現(xiàn),形成中國(guó)人內(nèi)傾的性格。 林語(yǔ)堂先生在其成名作《中國(guó)人》上,把中國(guó)人的性格概括為,“老實(shí)溫厚,遇事忍耐,消極避世,超脫老滑,和平主義,知足常樂(lè),幽默滑稽,因循守舊?!彪m然有些偏頗,但也真實(shí)反映了中國(guó)文化的女性主義傾向。
從以上四種文化維度的內(nèi)涵和數(shù)據(jù)上都可以看出,中國(guó)文化與英語(yǔ)文化在價(jià)值取向上有很大差異。這些差異不僅體現(xiàn)為跨文化交際中的障礙,對(duì)第二外語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作也會(huì)產(chǎn)生一定的負(fù)遷移作用。Connor(1997)在《對(duì)比修辭——第二語(yǔ)言寫(xiě)作中的跨文化層面》一書(shū)中提到,霍夫斯特德的四種文化維度可以用來(lái)進(jìn)一步從心理學(xué)的角度探討跨文化寫(xiě)作的差異。 Nelson & Carson(1995)和SU-YUEH WU也都分別對(duì)中國(guó)和北美學(xué)生英文寫(xiě)作中的各自的“集體主義”或“個(gè)人主義”傾向進(jìn)行過(guò)研究。本文想通過(guò)將中國(guó)學(xué)生用英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)的學(xué)術(shù)論文與英語(yǔ)母語(yǔ)學(xué)者用英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)的學(xué)術(shù)論文進(jìn)行對(duì)比,從霍夫斯特德的四個(gè)文化維度角度來(lái)找尋差異的原因,以改進(jìn)我國(guó)學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)論文水平。
轉(zhuǎn)貼于 三、中國(guó)學(xué)生的ESL學(xué)術(shù)論文和英語(yǔ)母語(yǔ)學(xué)者學(xué)術(shù)論文的對(duì)比
1.引用時(shí)附帶的尊稱(chēng)
英文母語(yǔ)論文中每逢引用名家或其他作者的原文時(shí),往往只加上“According to(根據(jù)xxx的話(huà))”、“As xxx says(如xxx所說(shuō))”,或直接在引號(hào)后注上所引的出處。英語(yǔ)母語(yǔ)的論文很重視將別人的話(huà)加上引號(hào),標(biāo)明出處。但標(biāo)明本身即意味著尊重,很少再附加其他的尊稱(chēng)。但中文的論文在引用名家之言時(shí),僅僅說(shuō)明出處似乎遠(yuǎn)不能表達(dá)對(duì)作者的尊重,“xx先生”、“xx教授”、“xxx翁”、“著名xxx家”等標(biāo)簽常??梢?jiàn)。中國(guó)學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)論文中在引用時(shí)也相應(yīng)地有“the well-known(famous/great/experienced(知名的/著名的/偉大的/資深的))”等恭維性修飾詞,或“其觀(guān)點(diǎn)對(duì)xx領(lǐng)域做出重要貢獻(xiàn)(奠定了xx的基礎(chǔ))”等推崇性句子,以表明其所引話(huà)語(yǔ)的權(quán)威性。這種對(duì)權(quán)威的恭維明顯是受中文傳統(tǒng)的影響。而這種傳統(tǒng)可能是源于中國(guó)較大的權(quán)力距離造成的習(xí)慣思維。在權(quán)力距離大的社會(huì)中,直接提到長(zhǎng)者的名諱是十分無(wú)禮的,甚至有砍頭之罪。這種傳統(tǒng)流傳下來(lái),便造成了習(xí)慣性的附加尊稱(chēng),在用第二語(yǔ)言寫(xiě)作時(shí),也難以避免。
2.引用成語(yǔ)或俗語(yǔ)的頻率
這里所說(shuō)的成語(yǔ)或俗語(yǔ)是指已在語(yǔ)言中固定下來(lái)的表達(dá)法,這些引用在英語(yǔ)論文中并不得到欣賞,被稱(chēng)為“cliché”(陳詞濫調(diào)),英語(yǔ)的論文中喜歡使用某些自創(chuàng)的隱喻,或靈活使用一些慣用語(yǔ),卻很少照搬已有的成語(yǔ)或俗語(yǔ)(在統(tǒng)計(jì)的5篇文章中,這種“cliché”的數(shù)量為零)。而中文論文卻把這些固定成語(yǔ)、諺語(yǔ)或格言看作是全篇必備的“華彩樂(lè)章”,一種文采的體現(xiàn)。因此中文中的引用不僅僅包括英語(yǔ)中常用的“觀(guān)點(diǎn)回顧”(literature review),更重要的是用名家之言、古詩(shī)、古諺使自己的話(huà)更有說(shuō)服力。這種應(yīng)用成語(yǔ)俗語(yǔ)的習(xí)慣也常常被沿用到中國(guó)學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作中,動(dòng)輒“as the old saying”(古語(yǔ)云)等。然而,這種引用在英語(yǔ)中卻有“拉大旗,作虎皮”之嫌。對(duì)成語(yǔ)、名家的引用也反映了不同文化對(duì)權(quán)威的態(tài)度以及對(duì)不確定性的規(guī)避程度。中國(guó)文化不確定性的規(guī)避指數(shù)較高,權(quán)威之言意味著被社會(huì)廣泛認(rèn)可,因此,引經(jīng)據(jù)典可以盡量避免分歧,減少可能發(fā)生的不確定性。相反,英語(yǔ)文化喜歡競(jìng)爭(zhēng)與沖突,因此,自己的觀(guān)點(diǎn)盡量用自己獨(dú)特的表達(dá)方式,避免步人后塵。英語(yǔ)文章不僅不喜歡使用“陳詞濫調(diào)”,對(duì)自己的觀(guān)點(diǎn)還常常從不同角度反證其可能性。而中國(guó)學(xué)生的論文則追求自圓其說(shuō),盡量減少不確定性。
3.結(jié)論中第一人稱(chēng)復(fù)數(shù)和第一人稱(chēng)單數(shù)的使用頻率
從數(shù)據(jù)上看,中文的5篇論文與英語(yǔ)的五篇論文使用第一人稱(chēng)復(fù)數(shù)(we/us/our)的頻率似乎相當(dāng),但實(shí)際上,5篇英語(yǔ)文章的結(jié)論都在700-1000詞左右,而漢語(yǔ)的結(jié)論則都在200-300字左右,中國(guó)學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)論文的結(jié)論也很短,都在200詞左右。在這樣的字詞總數(shù)比例下,第一人稱(chēng)復(fù)數(shù)在漢語(yǔ)文章中的使用頻率就遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)高于在英語(yǔ)文章中的使用頻率。英語(yǔ)文章結(jié)論中使用較多的是第一人稱(chēng)單數(shù)(first singular pronouns)和個(gè)人的觀(guān)點(diǎn)(personal anecdotes)。在有的文章中達(dá)到12次之多,如
By way of concluding, I would like to make four comments.
I have now stated that…
I have suggested that…
I consider it important to …
I want to make it clear that…
My second/third comment relates to
I have pided…
I have outlined…
I believe that…
My concern here is …
第一人稱(chēng)單數(shù)和個(gè)人觀(guān)點(diǎn)的使用體現(xiàn)了文章作者對(duì)自我的展示和肯定,體現(xiàn)了英語(yǔ)文化中的個(gè)人主義傾向和男性主義傾向。他們認(rèn)為個(gè)人的經(jīng)歷最有說(shuō)服力,只有自己相信自己,才能說(shuō)服讀者。而中文論文卻相比之下,對(duì)自己的觀(guān)點(diǎn)比較謙虛,常常出現(xiàn)“以上各點(diǎn)信手寫(xiě)來(lái),全是一孔之見(jiàn),還望行家不吝指正”(李觀(guān)儀,2003)等謙辭,以保持學(xué)術(shù)界的和諧。這種對(duì)和諧的追求體現(xiàn)了中國(guó)文化的集體主義和女性主義傾向。中國(guó)學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)論文對(duì)自己的觀(guān)點(diǎn)評(píng)價(jià)不夠自信,更多使用的是第一人稱(chēng)復(fù)數(shù),也顯然受此影響。
四、結(jié)語(yǔ)
論文摘要:目前,國(guó)內(nèi)關(guān)于非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)中傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)方面的文本資料繁多,識(shí)記理論復(fù)雜,在傳統(tǒng)的學(xué)習(xí)與交流方式中存在著形式單一、學(xué)習(xí)媒體落后、怠視非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)工作者的主體性等許多不足,這些因素已經(jīng)妨礙了非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)工作者在高標(biāo)準(zhǔn)高效率、高質(zhì)量的方面接受中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)的交流。為此,合理利用多媒體技術(shù)進(jìn)行非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)中傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)的學(xué)習(xí)與交流,有助于非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)工作者對(duì)知識(shí)豐富內(nèi)涵的理解與把握,擴(kuò)展其藝術(shù)文化視野。
中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)是指具有一定流傳時(shí)間的、不屬于當(dāng)代音樂(lè)家創(chuàng)作的音樂(lè)。在我國(guó)學(xué)術(shù)界,通常把清代以前即已形成的音樂(lè)或以后所發(fā)生的具有傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)形態(tài)的音樂(lè),劃歸于傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)的范疇。其中不僅包括在歷史上產(chǎn)生、流傳至今的古代作品,也包括當(dāng)代中國(guó)人民用本民族固有形式創(chuàng)作的、具有本民族固有形態(tài)特征的音樂(lè)作品??梢哉f(shuō),中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)在它數(shù)千年的發(fā)展歷程中,無(wú)論從律制、音階、宮調(diào)、音樂(lè)形態(tài)特征、文化傳統(tǒng)到民族思維方式,均形成了自己獨(dú)特的規(guī)律和特點(diǎn)。、
中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)文化是中國(guó)非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)的重要部分,是東方文化的集中表現(xiàn)之一,有著獨(dú)特的價(jià)值系統(tǒng)和思維方式,是人類(lèi)文明發(fā)展史上的一塊瑰寶。傳承和保護(hù)中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)文化,有助于增強(qiáng)我們的民族自尊心與自信心,可以開(kāi)闊文化視野,了解與把握傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)文化的精神與特質(zhì),加強(qiáng)的歷史責(zé)任感。充分運(yùn)用多媒體技術(shù)在中國(guó)非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)學(xué)習(xí)與交流中的應(yīng)用具有十分重要的意義。
1傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)學(xué)習(xí)與交流存在的問(wèn)題
1.1人類(lèi)思維網(wǎng)狀結(jié)構(gòu)與傳統(tǒng)教材組織上的線(xiàn)性有序特征之間的矛盾
認(rèn)知心理學(xué)的研究已經(jīng)證明,人類(lèi)的思維記憶具有聯(lián)想特征,在閱讀或思考問(wèn)題時(shí)經(jīng)常從一個(gè)概念或主題經(jīng)過(guò)聯(lián)想轉(zhuǎn)移到另一個(gè)相關(guān)的概念或主題,是一種非線(xiàn)性的、縱橫交織的網(wǎng)狀結(jié)構(gòu)。目前國(guó)內(nèi)出版的所有中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)教材,在學(xué)習(xí)內(nèi)容組織上均體現(xiàn)出線(xiàn)性、有序的特征。在這種線(xiàn)性的內(nèi)容組織環(huán)境下,非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)工作者對(duì)知識(shí)的攝取難免被動(dòng)、程式化,在一定程度上會(huì)限制其聯(lián)想思維能力的發(fā)展。
1.2文本資料過(guò)多、識(shí)記理論復(fù)雜趣味性少與學(xué)習(xí)興趣之間的矛盾
國(guó)內(nèi)傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)學(xué)習(xí)與交流多年來(lái)一直存在著純文本資料過(guò)多、各民族傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)獨(dú)立單處、針對(duì)性研究、形成不了一條主線(xiàn)的缺憾,這是專(zhuān)家根據(jù)自身研究方向進(jìn)行的單一民族傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)的研究造成的。
1.3手段陳舊有限的時(shí)間內(nèi)很難完成繁重的學(xué)習(xí)與交流內(nèi)容
中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)的學(xué)習(xí)與交流一般都以專(zhuān)家口頭傳授為主,加入一些視聽(tīng)資料,無(wú)法及時(shí)地展現(xiàn)知識(shí)信息,專(zhuān)家的講授受到限制,授課的視聽(tīng)效果不能做到步調(diào)一致,講授中出現(xiàn)的問(wèn)題不能及時(shí)地反饋給非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)學(xué)習(xí)者。如中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)講授、中需要介紹到各個(gè)時(shí)期大量的譜例,傳統(tǒng)的講授方法只能通過(guò)專(zhuān)家的板書(shū)讓非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)工作者觀(guān)看,然后做譜面上的分析,或者利用鋼琴即興演奏,動(dòng)作示范只能是局部的,學(xué)習(xí)者很難把動(dòng)、靜有機(jī)地結(jié)合起來(lái),畢竟鋼琴的音色是單一的,表達(dá)音樂(lè)風(fēng)格的準(zhǔn)確性不能盡如人意。
2多媒體技術(shù)對(duì)傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)學(xué)習(xí)與交流的積極作用
2.1多媒體技術(shù)可以擴(kuò)展和放大信息空間
用多媒體技術(shù)處理的信息可以呈現(xiàn)出多樣化和多維化,使那些抽象難懂,用語(yǔ)言不易表達(dá)的內(nèi)容變得生動(dòng)具體一目了然。多媒體課件利用“超文本”和“超媒體”技術(shù)按照人腦的聯(lián)想思維方式在課件中重新組織編排講授信息,將講授內(nèi)容整合為一種非線(xiàn)性的網(wǎng)狀結(jié)構(gòu),專(zhuān)家在授課時(shí)就可根據(jù)講授思路在不同章節(jié)之間、章節(jié)內(nèi)容知識(shí)點(diǎn)之間靈活“跳轉(zhuǎn)”,及時(shí)獲取課件上的相關(guān)信息來(lái)輔助講授。
2.2多媒體技術(shù)的應(yīng)用縮短了學(xué)習(xí)者將信息轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)橹R(shí)的過(guò)程.
科學(xué)研究表明:人類(lèi)的思維方式是一種散發(fā)式的非線(xiàn)性的思維方式。多媒體的信息組織方式正符合中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)講授的需要,它可以實(shí)現(xiàn)多角度、多方位、多層次、非線(xiàn)性的信息傳輸與交流,幫助學(xué)習(xí)者建立思維、改善思維、減少思維過(guò)程中的彎路,較快的接近學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo);多媒體的引入還能把聲音和譜例完美結(jié)合,實(shí)現(xiàn)音色和風(fēng)格的統(tǒng)一,完成音樂(lè)風(fēng)格的具象化,使學(xué)習(xí)者能夠身臨其境。
2.3應(yīng)用多媒體技術(shù)可以營(yíng)造一個(gè)身臨其境的學(xué)習(xí)氛圍,符合時(shí)代要求
多媒體技術(shù)的迅猛發(fā)展與廣泛應(yīng)用為我們傳統(tǒng)的外國(guó)音樂(lè)講授手段和方法改革帶來(lái)了新的契機(jī),這是中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)講授過(guò)程別重要的,學(xué)習(xí)者的認(rèn)知當(dāng)然需要從別的教材、工具書(shū)中汲取一些專(zhuān)業(yè)信息作為補(bǔ)充,但是如果我們利用多媒體講授手段的信息集成優(yōu)勢(shì),則會(huì)大大擴(kuò)展原有的講授資源。
3多媒體技術(shù)在中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)音樂(lè)學(xué)習(xí)與交流中的應(yīng)用
Abstract: The purpose of this study is to compare the structures of English-language titles in the two counterpart journals in economics field and whether. To this end, the corpus of 237 titles in Quarterly Journal of Economics (QJE) and 311 titles in Jingjixue Jikan (China Economic Quarterly) or (CEQ) are built. And all the titles are categorized into five classes: Noun Phrase, Compound, Full-sentence, Verbal Phrase, and Prepositional Phrase. More detailed investigation includes the comparison of words and expressions in the titles. The results show a sharp contrast between structure of the titles in two journals and the trend of title forms, such as the different frequency of occurrences of types or subtypes of titles. And the results provide guidance for the L2 Chinese writers compile a suitable English research article titles while publishing articles in journals in either domestic or international journals.
關(guān)鍵詞: 論文標(biāo)題;經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué);體裁分析;對(duì)比研究;二語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作
Key words: research article titles; economics; genre analysis; contrastive analysis; second language writing
中圖分類(lèi)號(hào):G23文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼:A文章編號(hào):1006-4311(2011)18-0304-03
0引言
近十余年來(lái),隨著對(duì)學(xué)術(shù)語(yǔ)篇研究的興起,語(yǔ)言學(xué)家越來(lái)越重視體裁分析方法在這一領(lǐng)域的應(yīng)用,并形成了以John Swales (1990) 為代表的語(yǔ)步分析法,其對(duì)學(xué)術(shù)語(yǔ)篇前言進(jìn)行了實(shí)證研究提出了CARS Model。隨后引發(fā)了學(xué)者們的濃厚興趣,他們將注意力集中于學(xué)術(shù)語(yǔ)篇的不同部分,例如,Lores (2004)和Martin(2003)研究了學(xué)術(shù)語(yǔ)篇的摘要部分,Homes(1997)研究了學(xué)術(shù)論文討論部分,Yang和Allison (2003)研究了學(xué)術(shù)論文的結(jié)論部分,等等。本文將針對(duì)學(xué)術(shù)論文的標(biāo)題部分進(jìn)行對(duì)比研究,其方法也是體裁分的實(shí)證研究方法,目的在于發(fā)現(xiàn)國(guó)內(nèi)外經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)期刊英語(yǔ)標(biāo)題的結(jié)構(gòu)特點(diǎn),并能夠?qū)χ袊?guó)學(xué)者撰寫(xiě)英語(yǔ)標(biāo)題提供參考。
1學(xué)術(shù)論文標(biāo)題研究綜述
80年代末以來(lái),以“體裁分析之父”(Pérez-Llantada, 2004:140)John Swales (1990) 為代表的體裁分析法(genre analysis)的研究范式逐漸確立其在學(xué)術(shù)語(yǔ)篇的語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究中的地位。在1990年,John Swales 指出標(biāo)題是學(xué)術(shù)體裁研究中被忽視的一個(gè)方面之一。隨著學(xué)者們對(duì)標(biāo)題研究的關(guān)注與日俱增,研究成果不斷涌現(xiàn)。Yitzhaki (1997)比較了18種不同人文學(xué)科期刊的論文標(biāo)題中的實(shí)詞數(shù)量目的在于檢驗(yàn)學(xué)術(shù)論文標(biāo)題的信息密集性。Busch-Lauer (2000) 分別對(duì)比了醫(yī)學(xué)和語(yǔ)言學(xué)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的英語(yǔ)和德語(yǔ)標(biāo)題,發(fā)現(xiàn)醫(yī)學(xué)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的標(biāo)題長(zhǎng)度比語(yǔ)言學(xué)內(nèi)的論文標(biāo)題的字?jǐn)?shù)明顯要多一些,并且確證了以德語(yǔ)為母語(yǔ)的學(xué)者習(xí)慣于用德語(yǔ)的思維方式撰寫(xiě)標(biāo)題,同時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn)了所有的標(biāo)題在兩個(gè)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的作用都是交際功能的作用。Laurence Anthony(2001)通過(guò)對(duì)計(jì)算機(jī)領(lǐng)域期刊中600個(gè)論文標(biāo)題的長(zhǎng)度,標(biāo)點(diǎn)使用,介詞使用和詞頻進(jìn)行了研究,結(jié)果表明,計(jì)算機(jī)學(xué)科的論文標(biāo)題有其自身的特點(diǎn),例如,他發(fā)現(xiàn)介詞和冠詞在此類(lèi)標(biāo)題中出現(xiàn)的頻率最高,其中介詞for在所選的6種期刊中的4種當(dāng)中出現(xiàn)的頻率最高。最終得出的結(jié)論是計(jì)算機(jī)科學(xué)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的標(biāo)題有其自身的特點(diǎn),但是同時(shí)也提出,論文標(biāo)題的特點(diǎn)因?qū)W科不同而有差異,這樣的普遍性結(jié)論有待進(jìn)一步的研究。隨后在2002年Yitzhaki又研究了24個(gè)重要期刊的論文標(biāo)題與論文長(zhǎng)度的關(guān)系,同時(shí)做了歷時(shí)比較的研究,發(fā)現(xiàn)文章長(zhǎng)度和論文標(biāo)題長(zhǎng)度的關(guān)系是因科學(xué)類(lèi)別的不同而不同,在所謂“硬”科學(xué)內(nèi)標(biāo)題長(zhǎng)度與文章長(zhǎng)度的相關(guān)性較“軟”科學(xué)更強(qiáng)。Haggan (2004)則是同時(shí)分別比較研究了文學(xué),語(yǔ)言學(xué)和理科科學(xué)的論文標(biāo)題的結(jié)構(gòu)特點(diǎn)。她將標(biāo)題按形式分為句子型,名詞型和短語(yǔ)型三類(lèi)。研究結(jié)果顯示出三個(gè)不同領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的標(biāo)題都互不相同,各有特點(diǎn),同時(shí)指出標(biāo)題的功能在于引起讀者閱讀文章的興趣。Hartley (2005c,2007a,2007b)從不同方面探討了論文標(biāo)題的特點(diǎn)或功能:一、指出論文標(biāo)題應(yīng)當(dāng)同時(shí)具有傳遞信息和吸引讀者的作用;二、將論文標(biāo)題按功能重新分類(lèi),共有12類(lèi)并且分析了各類(lèi)的特點(diǎn)和功能;三、研究了冒號(hào)在學(xué)術(shù)論文中的使用偏好。最近的研究是Soler (2007)對(duì)研究型學(xué)術(shù)論文和綜述型學(xué)術(shù)論文的標(biāo)題結(jié)構(gòu)的實(shí)證研究。在570個(gè)標(biāo)題中,480個(gè)為研究型論文標(biāo)題,90個(gè)是綜述型論文標(biāo)題,時(shí)間跨度從1996年至2002年,涉及的學(xué)科領(lǐng)域是生物學(xué)和社會(huì)學(xué),她將標(biāo)題按結(jié)構(gòu)分為句子型,問(wèn)句型,名詞詞組型和復(fù)合型,同時(shí)還對(duì)標(biāo)題的長(zhǎng)度進(jìn)行了研究,結(jié)果表明,綜述型標(biāo)題的長(zhǎng)度在兩個(gè)領(lǐng)域都非常的短,復(fù)合型標(biāo)題是社會(huì)科學(xué)體裁研究型論文標(biāo)題的特點(diǎn)。句子型標(biāo)題是研究型論文標(biāo)題的文章類(lèi)型的特點(diǎn),尤其是生物學(xué)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的研究型論文標(biāo)題的特點(diǎn)。
國(guó)內(nèi)的標(biāo)題研究主要分為兩類(lèi):漢英單語(yǔ)種獨(dú)立研究和漢語(yǔ)標(biāo)題的英譯。例如王英格(1993)研究了英語(yǔ)學(xué)術(shù)論文標(biāo)題的語(yǔ)法和修辭特點(diǎn)?;亓郑?007)對(duì)圖書(shū)情報(bào)學(xué)類(lèi)核心期刊論文標(biāo)題進(jìn)行了計(jì)量研究,共對(duì)42989篇文獻(xiàn)的標(biāo)題進(jìn)行統(tǒng)計(jì)分析,涉及到標(biāo)題長(zhǎng)度,句型以及標(biāo)題中相關(guān)詞匯的研究,如題首詞,題尾詞,關(guān)鍵詞等。而論文標(biāo)題的漢英翻譯的研究有,段萍和顧維萍(2002)的關(guān)于醫(yī)學(xué)論文的標(biāo)題和摘要的漢譯英的常見(jiàn)錯(cuò)誤的分析的研究,周永模(2002)的關(guān)于哲學(xué)和人文社會(huì)科學(xué)的論文標(biāo)題的漢譯英的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的探討。另外,值得一提的是王成宇(2003)對(duì)英漢雙語(yǔ)的疑問(wèn)型學(xué)術(shù)論文標(biāo)題進(jìn)行的對(duì)比研究。
綜上所述,學(xué)術(shù)論文的標(biāo)題研究成果逐漸豐碩,本文將就前人的研究成果繼續(xù)深化和推進(jìn)學(xué)術(shù)論文標(biāo)題的研究,基本的研究思路是以體裁為切入點(diǎn),即語(yǔ)言學(xué)類(lèi)研究型學(xué)術(shù)論文;英英對(duì)比,其特點(diǎn)在于中國(guó)學(xué)者的英文標(biāo)題和國(guó)際學(xué)者的英文標(biāo)題的對(duì)比;以及采用實(shí)證研究方法。
2研究方法
首先本文選取了中美經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)兩本在各自學(xué)術(shù)共同體中的權(quán)威期刊:中國(guó)的《經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)(季刊)》(China Economic Quarterly (CEQ))和美國(guó)麻省理工學(xué)院(MIT)的Quarterly Journal of Economics (QJE)。建立了一個(gè)含有548個(gè)英語(yǔ)科研原創(chuàng)論文標(biāo)題的語(yǔ)料庫(kù),其中CEQ 中隨機(jī)選取311 個(gè)標(biāo)題,QJE 中隨機(jī)選取237個(gè)標(biāo)題。按照語(yǔ)料庫(kù)的建庫(kù)原則以及對(duì)比語(yǔ)言學(xué)的可比性原則,標(biāo)題的選取時(shí)間跨度為2004至2009年(由于研究時(shí)間限制,2009年只收集部分標(biāo)題),且不包括書(shū)評(píng)類(lèi)以及其他體裁類(lèi)型的文章標(biāo)題。其次本文將所選標(biāo)題分為五大類(lèi):名詞詞組型(Noun Phrase [NP]), 復(fù)合型(Compound [CP])即一個(gè)標(biāo)題由兩部分組成,中間被冒號(hào)或其他符號(hào)隔開(kāi), 句子型(Full-sentence [FS]), 動(dòng)詞詞組型(Verbal Phrase [VP]), 以及介詞詞組型(Prepositional Phrase [PP])。另外,本文還進(jìn)一步細(xì)分了名詞詞組型標(biāo)題和復(fù)合型標(biāo)題,同時(shí)還統(tǒng)計(jì)了本語(yǔ)料庫(kù)中的NP和CP標(biāo)題在近五年內(nèi)(2004-2008)的變化趨勢(shì)。
3研究結(jié)果與討論
標(biāo)題應(yīng)當(dāng)體現(xiàn)信息性和經(jīng)濟(jì)性原則。信息性是指標(biāo)題應(yīng)當(dāng)全面準(zhǔn)確反映論文的內(nèi)容。經(jīng)濟(jì)性是指標(biāo)題應(yīng)當(dāng)用最少的詞表達(dá)最豐富的意義。表1顯示了兩本期刊英語(yǔ)標(biāo)題的平均長(zhǎng)度。明顯的差異在于國(guó)內(nèi)的CEQ論文標(biāo)題要比國(guó)外的QJE論文標(biāo)題用詞偏長(zhǎng)。就其原因在于英語(yǔ)不是中國(guó)人的母語(yǔ),并且中國(guó)學(xué)者在撰寫(xiě)英語(yǔ)論文標(biāo)題時(shí)會(huì)受到中國(guó)文化的影響(Connor, 1996)。另外,無(wú)論CEQ論文標(biāo)題是出于投稿人的翻譯或重新用英語(yǔ)撰寫(xiě),都會(huì)受到原來(lái)漢語(yǔ)標(biāo)題的影響,我們的統(tǒng)計(jì)發(fā)現(xiàn),漢語(yǔ)標(biāo)題會(huì)經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)“論”、“研究”以及“探討”之類(lèi)的標(biāo)題標(biāo)記(尹世超,2001)。同時(shí),國(guó)內(nèi)學(xué)者撰寫(xiě)的英語(yǔ)論文標(biāo)題會(huì)將這類(lèi)標(biāo)記詞翻譯出來(lái)形成“The study of …” 或“The analysis of …”之類(lèi)表達(dá)形式。這無(wú)形中會(huì)增加英語(yǔ)標(biāo)題的長(zhǎng)度而不會(huì)因此增加標(biāo)題的信息含量。
標(biāo)題的功能有四種(尹世超,2001):稱(chēng)名功能,概括功能,吸引功能和引導(dǎo)功能。如果綜合考慮標(biāo)題的兩個(gè)原則和四個(gè)功能,那么復(fù)合型標(biāo)題是最理想的標(biāo)題形式。表2的復(fù)合型標(biāo)題頻度百分比正好體現(xiàn)了這一選擇在英語(yǔ)環(huán)境下的要求。按照Swales和Feak(1994)的觀(guān)點(diǎn)此類(lèi)標(biāo)題(英語(yǔ))的構(gòu)成為:?jiǎn)栴}-解決(problem-solution),一般-詳細(xì)(general-specific),話(huà)題-方法(topic-method)和主要-次要(major-minor)。這一構(gòu)成就能夠是撰寫(xiě)者不通過(guò)語(yǔ)言手段而在兩部分之間建立聯(lián)系,達(dá)到信息性、經(jīng)濟(jì)性和吸引功能的統(tǒng)一。由于標(biāo)題的基本功能是稱(chēng)名功能所以名詞詞組型標(biāo)題在兩本期刊中都占有較多的頻度。有趣的發(fā)現(xiàn)是,美國(guó)的QJE期刊論文標(biāo)題出現(xiàn)了較多的句子型標(biāo)題,共15個(gè)占該期刊語(yǔ)料的6.33%,以及較多的動(dòng)詞詞組型標(biāo)題,共8個(gè)占該期刊語(yǔ)料的3.38%。
兩本期刊使用最多的名詞詞組型標(biāo)題都是NP+PP結(jié)構(gòu),即一個(gè)核心名詞后接一個(gè)介詞短語(yǔ)的結(jié)構(gòu)。但是,相比較而言,CEQ期刊論文NP標(biāo)題的結(jié)構(gòu)相對(duì)較復(fù)雜。這一點(diǎn)似乎驗(yàn)證了Connor(1996)的觀(guān)點(diǎn),寫(xiě)作是一種深嵌于文化的行為。即國(guó)內(nèi)學(xué)者撰寫(xiě)英語(yǔ)論文標(biāo)題時(shí),會(huì)采用復(fù)雜的介詞短語(yǔ)限定討論話(huà)題的形式,而國(guó)外學(xué)者會(huì)直接采用其他策略比如說(shuō)采用CP型標(biāo)題結(jié)構(gòu)。這同時(shí)似乎也表明非母語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作者會(huì)在使用第二外語(yǔ)時(shí)無(wú)意識(shí)的會(huì)凸顯過(guò)濾某些文化因素,這些因素會(huì)表現(xiàn)在語(yǔ)言層面,比如說(shuō),復(fù)雜的介詞短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)標(biāo)題。
在標(biāo)題具有稱(chēng)名這一點(diǎn)上,中美期刊論文撰寫(xiě)者又一次達(dá)成一致,即標(biāo)題的前后兩部分都是名詞詞組結(jié)構(gòu)[NP:NP]。但是QJE期刊CP論文標(biāo)題并不僅僅是依賴(lài)這一結(jié)構(gòu),作為美國(guó)學(xué)術(shù)共同體的研究者,他們會(huì)更多關(guān)注英語(yǔ)標(biāo)題的其他功能如吸引功能,所以該類(lèi)標(biāo)題在QJE中呈現(xiàn)出較多的其他次級(jí)結(jié)構(gòu),如Q:NP[問(wèn)句:名詞詞組]型。本語(yǔ)料庫(kù)中,最強(qiáng)烈的對(duì)比在于,QJE中會(huì)出現(xiàn)PP:NP類(lèi)型標(biāo)題和Q:Q類(lèi)型標(biāo)題,而CEQ中卻無(wú)此類(lèi)型標(biāo)題出現(xiàn);另外,在CEQ中會(huì)出現(xiàn)PP:NP和Q:VP類(lèi)型標(biāo)題,但是在QJE中,撰寫(xiě)者不會(huì)才取此類(lèi)型去撰寫(xiě)標(biāo)題。此現(xiàn)象有待于進(jìn)一步的大規(guī)模的語(yǔ)料收集和分析。
從上圖可以看出,NP和CP標(biāo)題在五類(lèi)標(biāo)題中在近五年內(nèi)呈增加趨勢(shì)。有趣的發(fā)現(xiàn)是,CP標(biāo)題在兩本期刊中在2007年增至最多,相反的NP標(biāo)題在兩本期刊中減至最少。相對(duì)于2007年來(lái)說(shuō),兩本期刊中的CP標(biāo)題在2008年有所減少,而NP標(biāo)題有所增加。最終的結(jié)果表明,經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)類(lèi)期刊英語(yǔ)論文標(biāo)題NP和CP類(lèi)型出現(xiàn)的頻度趨近于相同,但總體呈增加態(tài)勢(shì)。
4結(jié)論
本研究表明經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)類(lèi)中美兩本期刊的英語(yǔ)論文標(biāo)題存在明顯差異。這些差異是由于文化社會(huì)因素造成。本研究的意義在于為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)類(lèi)同行撰寫(xiě)英語(yǔ)論文標(biāo)題提供幫助。進(jìn)一步的研究可細(xì)致深入地探討經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)類(lèi)英語(yǔ)論文標(biāo)題的用詞特點(diǎn)。
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【關(guān)鍵詞】研究生英語(yǔ);教學(xué)改革;建議
0 引言
目前,專(zhuān)家學(xué)者大多關(guān)注著我國(guó)小學(xué)、中學(xué)及大學(xué)本科階段的英語(yǔ)教學(xué)的費(fèi)時(shí)低效現(xiàn)象。中學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)受中考高考的導(dǎo)向,考試型的教學(xué)令學(xué)生進(jìn)入大學(xué)以后,很難達(dá)到“學(xué)習(xí)者在多元文化的環(huán)境中,不僅能用英語(yǔ)與他人交流,同時(shí)也要做“言之有物”和“言之有理”(文秋芳,2002)” 的大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)的目標(biāo)。大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)總在補(bǔ)救式與發(fā)展中掙扎。同樣,從本科生讀上來(lái)的研究生們,在英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程中也是存在種種問(wèn)題?,F(xiàn)實(shí)要求研究生畢業(yè)后,他們不僅能閱讀與專(zhuān)業(yè)相關(guān)的外文資料, 還能具有一般的外語(yǔ)日常交流能力, 逐步過(guò)渡到口、筆探討學(xué)術(shù)問(wèn)題, 作學(xué)術(shù)專(zhuān)題發(fā)言等。然而,事實(shí)上, 許多同學(xué)不僅不能進(jìn)行簡(jiǎn)單的日常對(duì)話(huà), 連許多常用的單詞都讀不準(zhǔn)。
1 目前研究生英語(yǔ)教學(xué)存在的問(wèn)題和壓力
學(xué)生當(dāng)中有一部分在大學(xué)本科兩年英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)之后能堅(jiān)持自學(xué)英語(yǔ), 大部分卻處于斷檔階段; 兩年之后,又進(jìn)入一次艱苦的循環(huán), 而后又是兩年的斷檔, 他們中一部分又進(jìn)入博士階段的更短的循環(huán)。碩士研究生在公共必修課中,英語(yǔ)課時(shí)最多,任務(wù)最重,效果卻是最低的。在我校研究生教學(xué)安排中,第一學(xué)期64個(gè)課時(shí),每周4個(gè)課時(shí)的綜合英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)。第二學(xué)期口語(yǔ)和寫(xiě)作共64學(xué)時(shí),每周各2個(gè)學(xué)時(shí)。我們的課程設(shè)置仍然沿用本科階段的模式, 重視閱讀訓(xùn)練, 輕視聽(tīng)、說(shuō)和寫(xiě)的能力的培養(yǎng)。特別是研究生應(yīng)該具備的論文寫(xiě)作能力,國(guó)際學(xué)術(shù)會(huì)議發(fā)言的聽(tīng)說(shuō)能力的培養(yǎng)沒(méi)有進(jìn)入課程設(shè)置中。教師們常常在一年的教學(xué)任務(wù)完成之后經(jīng)常惴惴不安地問(wèn)自己: 我們給了自己的學(xué)生多少幫助?他們?cè)谶^(guò)去大部分考過(guò)了英語(yǔ)四級(jí), 有相當(dāng)一部分考過(guò)了英語(yǔ)六級(jí)。我們研究生階段的教學(xué)還能用什么考試來(lái)加以有效地檢驗(yàn)? 能否經(jīng)得起檢驗(yàn)?
在面臨諸多問(wèn)題的同時(shí), 高校研究生英語(yǔ)教師也不斷感受著各種壓力。
1)研究生招生規(guī)模的逐年增加是教師感受最明顯的壓力。研究生教育從以前的精英式教育變成現(xiàn)在的大眾化教育。招生規(guī)模龐大, 學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)程度參差不齊,同時(shí)師生比嚴(yán)重失調(diào),教師不能全面了解學(xué)生情況,教學(xué)資源雪上加霜。這些必然導(dǎo)致教學(xué)效果差強(qiáng)人意。
2)網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)的發(fā)展給英語(yǔ)教學(xué)帶來(lái)的壓力。“學(xué)生已趨向于擯棄僅僅靠教材來(lái)學(xué)英語(yǔ)的模式, 轉(zhuǎn)而采取從多種媒介和渠道接受輸入?!保ㄠ崢?shù)棠,1996) 例如,在I Tunes U 上有來(lái)自世界各地的350,000 多個(gè)免費(fèi)的講座,視頻,電影等其他學(xué)習(xí)資源,這使傳統(tǒng)的課堂英語(yǔ)教學(xué)受到極大的挑戰(zhàn),如何改變課程設(shè)置,如何在有限的課時(shí)中,把課堂學(xué)習(xí)與網(wǎng)絡(luò)有效利用結(jié)合起來(lái)成為研究生教學(xué)急需思考的問(wèn)題。
3)社會(huì)英語(yǔ)辦學(xué)熱對(duì)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)的壓力。研究生期間各專(zhuān)業(yè)學(xué)生均有與國(guó)外大學(xué)合作做交換生或參與某項(xiàng)研究項(xiàng)目的機(jī)會(huì),學(xué)生們充分感受到自己英語(yǔ)能力與個(gè)人就業(yè)前途的利害相關(guān),許多學(xué)生在校外社會(huì)培訓(xùn)機(jī)構(gòu)參加英語(yǔ)輔導(dǎo)班。這讓我們經(jīng)常反思, 我們自己的研究生英語(yǔ)課程該如何設(shè)置得更合理來(lái)適應(yīng)他們的需要。
4)專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)對(duì)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)的壓力, 許多研究生在本系必修的一些專(zhuān)業(yè)課程中有些是導(dǎo)師直接使用英語(yǔ)來(lái)講授, 使用的教材、講義也都是最新的;要求學(xué)生定期閱讀最新的本專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)論文。甚至有的要求學(xué)生用英語(yǔ)討論、寫(xiě)文章。再有, 還有些專(zhuān)業(yè)聘請(qǐng)外籍教師短期講授一些專(zhuān)業(yè)課程或講座。如何處理好研究生公外英語(yǔ)教學(xué)和他們?cè)趯?zhuān)業(yè)學(xué)習(xí)中對(duì)外語(yǔ)的使用這兩者之間的關(guān)系是很重要的。
2 新的教改新模式
這些壓力促使我們?nèi)ニ伎己透母铿F(xiàn)在的教學(xué)模式, 要求我們結(jié)合自身的條件和特點(diǎn),勇于創(chuàng)新,不斷嘗試與時(shí)俱進(jìn)的教育教學(xué)模式。新的模式試從以下幾個(gè)方面來(lái)進(jìn)行。
2.1 課程設(shè)置方面的改革
第一學(xué)期開(kāi)設(shè)聽(tīng)力口語(yǔ)及閱讀與寫(xiě)作課。第二學(xué)期,開(kāi)設(shè)國(guó)際會(huì)議交流英語(yǔ)、西方文化、英漢比較研究及專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)閱讀等系列課程。
第一學(xué)期課程設(shè)置在于強(qiáng)調(diào)學(xué)生培養(yǎng)運(yùn)用能力,特別是閱讀與寫(xiě)作課,除介紹寫(xiě)作的基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)、資料的查詢(xún)外, 重點(diǎn)放在英語(yǔ)論文寫(xiě)作上, 培養(yǎng)學(xué)生正確和規(guī)范地陳述和發(fā)表自己的研究成果的能力。英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作部分包括: 英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作基本知識(shí), 實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作, 論文寫(xiě)作。此外具體地介紹如何利用國(guó)際互聯(lián)網(wǎng)查找資料, 如何避免侵權(quán)行為, 如何寫(xiě)電子郵件, 如何制作計(jì)算機(jī)輔助文稿演示片等新的內(nèi)容。上課內(nèi)容不限于書(shū)本, 而是多方面涉獵。學(xué)生以指定閱讀、瀏覽的書(shū)本作為課前預(yù)習(xí)內(nèi)容, 帶著問(wèn)題有針對(duì)性地聽(tīng)課再寫(xiě)作展示。
第二學(xué)期的國(guó)際會(huì)議交流英語(yǔ)是對(duì)第一學(xué)期聽(tīng)力口語(yǔ)及寫(xiě)作課的拓展,國(guó)際會(huì)議交流英語(yǔ)主要包括下列內(nèi)容:論文的種類(lèi)、摘要寫(xiě)法、論文體例、、版權(quán)問(wèn)題、論文宣讀。學(xué)習(xí)之后, 建立模擬課堂, 使學(xué)生有機(jī)會(huì)參與和觀(guān)摩國(guó)際會(huì)議的場(chǎng)景。
西方文化對(duì)于任何層次的學(xué)生都是必要的, 因?yàn)槲幕瘽B透至語(yǔ)言的各個(gè)層面。以往教師只是把課文中遇到的文化背景知識(shí)加以介紹, 現(xiàn)在將其單設(shè)為一門(mén)課, 有利于學(xué)生比較系統(tǒng)地了解西方的文化知識(shí), 也必然會(huì)幫助學(xué)生更好地掌握英語(yǔ)。西方文化主要以講授美國(guó)文化為主。內(nèi)容涵蓋: 文化的基本概念、美國(guó)簡(jiǎn)介、社會(huì)階層、經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)、農(nóng)業(yè)與農(nóng)場(chǎng)主、家庭的變化、學(xué)校與教育、大眾傳播、科技與社會(huì)、種族關(guān)系、社會(huì)制安、老人與青年、政府與司法、社會(huì)變革等。上課的方式可以是老師講授,學(xué)生閱讀相關(guān)文章然后討論,也可以輔助以美國(guó)電影,電視。
英漢比較研究課旨在將學(xué)生多年來(lái)學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)獲得的感性認(rèn)識(shí)規(guī)律化、系統(tǒng)化, 揭示出英漢兩種語(yǔ)言主要的規(guī)律性差異, 讓學(xué)生的感性認(rèn)識(shí)得以升華, 提高他們英語(yǔ)閱讀理解和欣賞能力, 使他們能用比較地道的英語(yǔ)進(jìn)行表達(dá)。英漢比較研究講座主要是在詞匯、句法、邏輯、修辭、語(yǔ)篇等各層面討論英漢兩種語(yǔ)言的規(guī)律性差異, 主要內(nèi)容包括:英漢宏觀(guān)比較、英漢詞匯意義的對(duì)應(yīng)關(guān)系、英漢句型的轉(zhuǎn)換、英漢否定的異同、語(yǔ)法關(guān)系與邏輯關(guān)系、英語(yǔ)修飾語(yǔ)與被修飾語(yǔ)的邏輯關(guān)系、英語(yǔ)邏輯意義重點(diǎn)、英語(yǔ)明喻和隱喻、英語(yǔ)行為、思維和言語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞的轉(zhuǎn)換、英語(yǔ)定語(yǔ)從句的邏輯意義、英語(yǔ)長(zhǎng)句的理解和翻譯等。
專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)閱讀就是以學(xué)科為依托的英語(yǔ)教學(xué),目的在于使學(xué)生通過(guò)熟悉的專(zhuān)業(yè)知識(shí)來(lái)理解并掌握英語(yǔ)表達(dá)的方式。以?xún)?nèi)容為基石來(lái)學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言的應(yīng)用。例如我校可以選用水利英語(yǔ),金融英語(yǔ),醫(yī)學(xué)英語(yǔ),商務(wù)英語(yǔ),材料英語(yǔ)等。這樣可以把專(zhuān)業(yè)學(xué)習(xí)與英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)有效結(jié)合,減少學(xué)生記憶負(fù)擔(dān)。
2.2 教學(xué)手段方面
1)調(diào)整課程時(shí)數(shù)。第一學(xué)期,聽(tīng)力口語(yǔ)課每周2個(gè)學(xué)時(shí),共32學(xué)時(shí)。閱讀與寫(xiě)作課每周2個(gè)學(xué)時(shí),共32個(gè)學(xué)時(shí)。 第二學(xué)期,開(kāi)設(shè)國(guó)際會(huì)議交流英語(yǔ)、西方文化、英漢比較研究及專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)閱讀等系列課程。每門(mén)課可以根據(jù)內(nèi)容適當(dāng)調(diào)整課時(shí)數(shù),比如可以設(shè)為10個(gè)學(xué)時(shí)或16,但是要求學(xué)生確保每學(xué)期的64個(gè)課時(shí)。其目的在于學(xué)生在有限的英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)時(shí)間靈動(dòng)地學(xué)到實(shí)用的英語(yǔ)技能并付諸實(shí)踐,改變多年一沉不變的語(yǔ)言的學(xué)習(xí)模式。
2)進(jìn)行分級(jí)教學(xué)。使英語(yǔ)水平一般的學(xué)生通過(guò)聽(tīng)說(shuō)讀寫(xiě)譯各方面的深入學(xué)習(xí), 鞏固他們本科階段的英語(yǔ)基礎(chǔ), 進(jìn)一步提高他們的基本能力, 使他們大部分順利通過(guò)學(xué)位課考試, 修得學(xué)分; 另一方面, 對(duì)于通過(guò)考試證明英語(yǔ)基本能力已經(jīng)不錯(cuò)的學(xué)生, 滿(mǎn)足他們?cè)谟⒄Z(yǔ)文化知識(shí)方面和語(yǔ)言交際能力方面學(xué)習(xí)的需要??彀嘤扇握n教師在統(tǒng)編教材的基礎(chǔ)上較大力度地補(bǔ)充其他教學(xué)材料, 根據(jù)他們語(yǔ)言能力相對(duì)優(yōu)于普通班學(xué)生的特點(diǎn), 更多地組織他們進(jìn)行形式多樣的互動(dòng)教學(xué), 進(jìn)一步提高他們?cè)谡Z(yǔ)言實(shí)際運(yùn)用方面的能力。
3)教學(xué)方式多樣。課堂講授式,大班講座式,師生互動(dòng)式,小組討論展示式等都是可以嘗試的教學(xué)方式。再者,傳統(tǒng)課堂與網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)融合,把課堂不僅僅設(shè)在教室,也可以有網(wǎng)絡(luò)教室。把一些教學(xué)資源及教學(xué)要求語(yǔ)言中心的局域網(wǎng)上, 學(xué)生自主安排時(shí)間分散地學(xué)習(xí), 教師通過(guò)網(wǎng)絡(luò)與學(xué)生交流, 答疑解惑,布置作業(yè)并檢查。同時(shí)在教師選擇方面,一些課可以請(qǐng)外教來(lái)進(jìn)行,一些課可以邀請(qǐng)有參加國(guó)際會(huì)議和多次在國(guó)際學(xué)術(shù)雜志上的豐富經(jīng)驗(yàn)的教師做講座, 使學(xué)生能學(xué)有榜樣。
3 以上的改革措施成功實(shí)施并能取得效果的前提條件
1)課程設(shè)置的變化要求有足夠滿(mǎn)足各課程教學(xué)的老師。目前的師生比是完全滿(mǎn)足這樣的教學(xué)要求的,所以需要引進(jìn)更多的教學(xué)人員進(jìn)入研究生教育活動(dòng);同時(shí)研究生教學(xué)的老師要有進(jìn)修學(xué)習(xí)的機(jī)會(huì),特別是假期短期的培訓(xùn),參與學(xué)術(shù)研討會(huì)尤為重要。
2)要有眾多的各類(lèi)適合的教材和教學(xué)資源。因?yàn)樾麻_(kāi)設(shè)的課程很多重在實(shí)用,那么選擇新穎、適用的教材勢(shì)在必行。教材所選文章的語(yǔ)言要合適。那些要么淺顯直白; 要么晦澀艱深,要么課文題材陳舊, 話(huà)題過(guò)時(shí); 要么選文求新求長(zhǎng),結(jié)果通篇盡是哩語(yǔ)、俗語(yǔ)的教材都是要擯棄的。
3)通過(guò)有效的考核建立學(xué)習(xí)激勵(lì)的機(jī)制。即將建立的學(xué)位課考試應(yīng)該包含部分課程內(nèi)容,否則學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)很難堅(jiān)持。學(xué)生英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)的考試,既有水平測(cè)試,也要有課程考試。
4)加強(qiáng)學(xué)生英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)管理。對(duì)學(xué)生的課堂表現(xiàn)進(jìn)行量化統(tǒng)計(jì), 設(shè)立學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)杠桿調(diào)控出勤的自覺(jué)意識(shí)。
4 結(jié)束語(yǔ)
本校研究生英語(yǔ)教學(xué)大刀闊斧的改革提到歷史日程,以上是初步設(shè)想及措施,在實(shí)施的過(guò)程中,一定會(huì)有新的問(wèn)題出現(xiàn),讓我們?yōu)橥晟平虒W(xué)實(shí)踐進(jìn)行積極的努力。進(jìn)一步深化英語(yǔ)教學(xué)改革, 使研究生的英語(yǔ)教學(xué)更上一層樓。
【參考文獻(xiàn)】
[1]戴煒棟.外語(yǔ)教學(xué)的“費(fèi)時(shí)低效”現(xiàn)象――思考與對(duì)策[J].外語(yǔ)與外語(yǔ)教學(xué), 2001,7.
[2]鄭樹(shù)棠.關(guān)于大學(xué)英語(yǔ)課培養(yǎng)語(yǔ)言能力等情況的研究[J].外語(yǔ)界,1996,4.